21 Characters and Strings II

We’ve talked about how char types are actually just small integer types… but it’s the same for a character in single quotes.

But a string in double quotes is type const char *.

Turns out there are few more types of strings and characters, and it leads down one of the most infamous rabbit holes in the language: the whole multibyte/wide/Unicode/localization thingy.

We’re going to peer into that rabbit hole, but not go in. …Yet!

21.1 Escape Sequences

We’re used to strings and characters with regular letters, punctuation, and numbers:

char *s = "Hello!";
char t = 'c';

But what if we want some special characters in there that we can’t type on the keyboard because they don’t exist (e.g. “€”), or even if we want a character that’s a single quote? We clearly can’t do this:

char t = ''';

To do these things, we use something called escape sequences. These are the backslash character (\) followed by another character. The two (or more) characters together have special meaning.

For our single quote character example, we can put an escape (that is, \) in front of the central single quote to solve it:

char t = '\'';

Now C knows that \' means just a regular quote we want to print, not the end of the character sequence.

You can say either “backslash” or “escape” in this context (“escape that quote”) and C devs will know what you’re talking about. Also, “escape” in this context is different than your Esc key or the ASCII ESC code.

21.1.1 Frequently-used Escapes

In my humble opinion, these escape characters make up 99.2%¹³⁹ of all escapes.

Here are some examples of the escapes and what they output when printed.

printf("Use \\n for newline\n");  // Use \n for newline
printf("Say \"hello\"!\n");       // Say "hello"!
printf("%c\n", '\'');             // '

21.1.2 Rarely-used Escapes

But there are more escapes! You just don’t see these as often.

21.1.2.1 Single Line Status Updates

A use case for \b or \r is to show status updates that appear on the same line on the screen and don’t cause the display to scroll. Here’s an example that does a countdown from 10. (If your compiler doesn’t support threading, you can use the non-standard POSIX function sleep() from <unistd.h>—if you’re not on a Unix-like, search for your platform and sleep for the equivalent.)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>

int main(void)
{
    for (int i = 10; i >= 0; i--) {
        printf("\rT minus %d second%s... \b", i, i != 1? "s": "");

        fflush(stdout);  // Force output to update

        // Sleep for 1 second
        thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_sec=1}, NULL);
    }

    printf("\rLiftoff!             \n");
}

Quite a few things are happening on line 7. First of all, we lead with a \r to get us to the beginning of the current line, then we overwrite whatever’s there with the current countdown. (There’s ternary operator out there to make sure we print 1 second instead of 1 seconds.)

Also, there’s a space after the ... That’s so that we properly overwrite the last . when i drops from 10 to 9 and we get a column narrower. Try it without the space to see what I mean.

And we wrap it up with a \b to back up over that space so the cursor sits at the exact end of the line in an aesthetically-pleasing way.

Note that line 14 also has a lot of spaces at the end to overwrite the characters that were already there from the countdown.

Finally, we have a weird fflush(stdout) in there, whatever that means. Short answer is that most terminals are line buffered by default, meaning they don’t actually display anything until a newline character is encountered. Since we don’t have a newline (we just have \r), without this line, the program would just sit there until Liftoff! and then print everything all in one instant. fflush() overrides this behavior and forces output to happen right now.

21.1.2.2 The Question Mark Escape

Why bother with this? After all, this works just fine:

printf("Doesn't it?\n");

And it works fine with the escape, too:

printf("Doesn't it\?\n");   // Note \?

So what’s the point??!

Let’s get more emphatic with another question mark and an exclamation point:

printf("Doesn't it??!\n");

When I compile this, I get this warning:

foo.c: In function ‘main’:
foo.c:5:23: warning: trigraph ??! converted to | [-Wtrigraphs]
    5 |     printf("Doesn't it??!\n");
      |    

And running it gives this unlikely result:

Doesn't it|

So trigraphs? What the heck is this??!

I’m sure we’ll revisit this dusty corner of the language later, but the short of it is the compiler looks for certain triplets of characters starting with ?? and it substitutes other characters in their place. So if you’re on some ancient terminal without a pipe symbol (|) on the keyboard, you can type ??! instead.

You can fix this by escaping the second question mark, like so:

printf("Doesn't it?\?!\n");

And then it compiles and works as-expected.

These days, of course, no one ever uses trigraphs. But that whole ??! does sometimes appear if you decide to use it in a string for emphasis.

21.1.3 Numeric Escapes

In addition, there are ways to specify numeric constants or other character values inside strings or character constants.

If you know an octal or hexadecimal representation of a byte, you can include that in a string or character constant.

The following table has example numbers, but any hex or octal numbers may be used. Pad with leading zeros if necessary to read the proper digit count.

Here’s an example of the less-commonly used octal notation to represent the letter B in between A and C. Normally this would be used for some kind of special unprintable character, but we have other ways to do that, below, and this is just an octal demo:

printf("A\102C\n");  // 102 is `B` in ASCII/UTF-8

Note there’s no leading zero on the octal number when you include it this way. But it does need to be three characters, so pad with leading zeros if you need to.

But far more common is to use hex constants these days. Here’s a demo that you shouldn’t use, but it demos embedding the UTF-8 bytes 0xE2, 0x80, and 0xA2 in a string, which corresponds to the Unicode “bullet” character (•).

printf("\xE2\x80\xA2 Bullet 1\n");
printf("\xE2\x80\xA2 Bullet 2\n");
printf("\xE2\x80\xA2 Bullet 3\n");

Produces the following output if you’re on a UTF-8 console (or probably garbage if you’re not):

• Bullet 1
• Bullet 2
• Bullet 3

But that’s a crummy way to do Unicode. You can use the escapes \u (16-bit) or \U (32-bit) to just refer to Unicode by code point number. The bullet is 2022 (hex) in Unicode, so you can do this and get more portable results:

printf("\u2022 Bullet 1\n");
printf("\u2022 Bullet 2\n");
printf("\u2022 Bullet 3\n");

Be sure to pad \u with enough leading zeros to get to four characters, and \U with enough to get to eight.

For example, that bullet could be done with \U and four leading zeros:

printf("\U00002022 Bullet 1\n");

But who has time to be that verbose?