Library Reference
v0.9.9, Copyright © December 30, 2022
The door slowly creaks open revealing a long hall with dusty stacks of books of lore…
I admit, maybe not that.
But you have found the Library Reference portion of Beej’s Guide to C!
This isn’t a tutorial, but rather is a comprehensive set of manual pages (or man pages as Unix hackers like to say) that define every function in the C Standard Library, complete with examples.
“This book, sir, contains every word in our beloved language.”
“Every single one, sir?”
“Every single one, sir!”
“Ah, well in that case, sir, I hope you will not object if I also offer the doctor my most enthusiastic contrafribularities.”–Blackadder toying with Dr. Samuel Johnson
There are, in fact, a number of functions left out of this guide, most notably all the optional “safe” functions (with a _s suffix).
But everything you’re likely to want is definitely covered in here. With examples.
Probably.
This guide is for people who are at least modestly proficient in C.
If you are not one of those people and wish to become one of those people, I can wholeheartedly recommend with zero bias the book Beej’s Guide to C Programming1, freely available wherever the Internet is sold.
Use the contents or index to find the function or category you’re after.
Then grab a bowl of your favorite cereal and devour the delicious, delicious verbiage.
I’ll try to stick to Plain Ol’-Fashioned ISO-standard C2. Well, for the most part. Here and there I might go crazy and start talking about POSIX3 or something, but we’ll see.
Unix users (e.g. Linux, BSD, etc.) try running cc or gcc from the command line–you might already have a compiler installed. If you don’t, search your distribution for installing gcc or clang.
Windows users should check out Visual Studio Community4. Or, if you’re looking for a more Unix-like experience (recommended!), install WSL5 and gcc.
Mac users will want to install XCode6, and in particular the command line tools.
There are a lot of compilers out there, and virtually all of them will work for this book. And a C++ compiler will compile a lot of (but not all!) C code. Best use a proper C compiler if you can.
This official location of this document is https://beej.us/guide/bgclr/7. There used to be a note here about migrating off Chico State’s computers (my alma mater), but that’s something that happened roughly a zillion years ago and the wording remained here only because it was copied over from the Network Guide, [breath] which I apparently haven’t read in its entirety for quite some time.
The End.
I’m generally available to help out with email questions so feel free to write in, but I can’t guarantee a response. I lead a pretty busy life and there are times when I just can’t answer a question you have. When that’s the case, I usually just delete the message. It’s nothing personal; I just won’t ever have the time to give the detailed answer you require.
As a rule, the more complex the question, the less likely I am to respond. If you can narrow down your question before mailing it and be sure to include any pertinent information (like platform, compiler, error messages you’re getting, and anything else you think might help me troubleshoot), you’re much more likely to get a response.
If you don’t get a response, hack on it some more, try to find the answer, and if it’s still elusive, then write me again with the information you’ve found and hopefully it will be enough for me to help out.
Now that I’ve badgered you about how to write and not write me, I’d just like to let you know that I fully appreciate all the praise the guide has received over the years. It’s a real morale boost, and it gladdens me to hear that it is being used for good! :-) Thank you!
You are more than welcome to mirror this site, whether publicly or privately. If you publicly mirror the site and want me to link to it from the main page, drop me a line at beej@beej.us.
If you want to translate the guide into another language, write me at beej@beej.us and I’ll link to your translation from the main page. Feel free to add your name and contact info to the translation.
Please note the license restrictions in the Copyright and Distribution section, below.
Beej’s Guide to C Programming–Library Reference is Copyright © 2021 Brian “Beej Jorgensen” Hall.
With specific exceptions for source code and translations, below, this work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.
One specific exception to the “No Derivative Works” portion of the license is as follows: this guide may be freely translated into any language, provided the translation is accurate, and the guide is reprinted in its entirety. The same license restrictions apply to the translation as to the original guide. The translation may also include the name and contact information for the translator.
The C source code presented in this document is hereby granted to the public domain, and is completely free of any license restriction.
Educators are freely encouraged to recommend or supply copies of this guide to their students.
Contact beej@beej.us for more information.
The hardest things about writing these guides are:
A lot of people have helped me through this process, and I want to acknowledge those who have made this book possible.
Thank you! ♥
This is just a quick overview of the fashionable and fun highlights of the syntax, keywords, and other animals in the C menagerie.
Some things you’ll need to make sense of the examples, below.
Comments in C start with // and go to the end of a line.
Multiline comments begin with /* and continue until a closing */.
Expressions in C are separated by semicolons (;). These tend to appear at the ends of lines.
If it’s not a keyword or other reserved punctuation, it tends to be an expression. Think “math including function calls”.
Think if, while, etc. Executable keywords.
Ignoring the bool type, zero is false and non-zero is true.
Multiple expressions and flow control keywords can be wrapped up in a block, made up of { followed by one or more expressions or statements, followed by }.
They are meant to give an idea of how to use various statements, but not be comprehensive in terms of examples.
In the examples, below, if either an expression or statement can be used, the word code is inserted.
The arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /, % (remainder).
Division is integer if all arguments are integers. Otherwise it’s a floating result.
You can also negate an expression by putting - in front of it. (You can also put a + in front of it—this doesn’t do anything mathematically, but it causes the Usual Arithmetic Conversions to be performed on the expression.)
The post-increment (++) and post-decrement (--) operators (after the variable) do their work after the rest of the expression has been evaluated.
int x = 10;
int y = 20;
int z = 30;
int w = (x++) + (y--) + (z++);
print("%d %d %d %d\n", x, y, z, w); // 11 19 31 60The pre-increment (++) and pre-decrement (--) operators (before the variable) do their work before the rest of the expression has been evaluated.
int x = 10;
int y = 20;
int z = 30;
int w = (++x) + (--y) + (++z);
print("%d %d %d %d\n", x, y, z, w); // 11 19 31 61All of these return a Boolean true-y or false-y value.
Less than, greater than, and equal to are: <, >, ==, respectively.
Less than or equal to and greater than or equal to are <= and >=.
Not equal to is !=.
* in front of a pointer variable dereferences that variable.
& in front of a variable gives the address of that variable.
+ and - arithmetic operators work on pointers for pointer arithmetic.
The dot operator (.) can get a field value out of a struct or union.
The arrow operator (->) can get a field value out of a pointer to a struct or union. These two are equivalent, assuming p is just such a pointer:
(*p).bar;
p->bar;The square bracket operators can reference a value in an array:
a[10] = 99;This is syntactic sugar over pointer arithmetic and referencing. The above line is equivalent to:
*(a + 10) = 99;Bit shift right: >>, bit shift left: <<.
int i = x << 3; // left shift 3 bitsWhether or not a right shift on a signed value is sign-extended is implementation-defined.
Bitwise AND, OR, NOT, and XOR are &, |, ~, and ^, respectively.
A standalone = is your basic assignment.
But there are also compound assignments that are like a shorthand version. For example, these two are basically equivalent:
x = x + 1;
x += 1;There are compound assignment operators for many of the other operators.
Arithmetic: +=, -=, *=, /=, and %=.
Bitwise: |=, &=, ~=, and ^=.
sizeof OperatorThis is a compile-time operator that gives you the size in bytes of the type of the argument. The type of the expression is used; the expression is not evaluated. sizeof works with any type, even user-defined composite types.
The return type is the integer type size_t.
float f;
size_t x = sizeof f;
printf("f is %zu bytes\n", x);You can also specify a raw type name in there by wrapping it in parentheses:
size_t x = sizeof(int);
printf("int is %zu bytes\n", x);You can force an expression to be another type (within reason) by casting to that type.
You give the new type name in parentheses.
Here we are forcing the subexpression x to be type float just before the division11. This causes the division, which would otherwise be an integer division, to be a floating point division.
int x = 17;
int y = 2;
float f = (float)x / y;_Alignof OperatorYou can get the byte alignment of any type with the _Alignof compile-time operator. If you include <stdalign.h>, you can use alignof instead.
Any type can be the argument to the operator, which must be in parenthesis. Unlike sizeof, the argument cannot be an expression.
printf("Alignment of int is %zu\n", alignof(int));You can separate subexpressions with commas, and each will be evaluated from left to right, and the value of the entire expression will be the value of the subexpression after the last comma.
int x = (1, 2, 3); // Silly way to assign `x = 3`Usually this is used in the various clauses in loops. For example, we can do multiple assignments in a for loop, and have multiple post expressions like this:
for (i = 2, j = 10; i < 100; i++, j += 4) { ... }Integer types from smallest to largest capacity: char, short, int, long, long long.
Any integer type may be prefaced with signed (the default except for char) or unsigned.
Whether or not char is signed is implementation defined.
Floating types from least accuracy to most: float, double, long double.
void is a type representing lack of type.
_Bool is a Boolean type. This becomes bool in C23. Earlier versions of C must include <stdbool.h> to get bool.
_Complex indicates a complex floating type type, when paired with such a type. Include <complex.h> to use complex instead.
complex float x = 1.2 + 2.3*I;
complex double y = 1.2 + 2.3*I;_Imaginary is an optional keyword used to specify an imaginary type (the imaginary part of a complex number) when paired with a floating type. Include <complex.h> to use imaginary instead. Neither GCC nor clang support this.
imaginary float f = 2.3*I;_Generic is a type “switcher” that allows you to emit different code at compile time depending on the type of the data.
You can declare constants to be of specific types (though it might be a larger type). In the following example unqualified types, case doesn’t matter, and the U can come before or after the L or LL.
123 int or larger
123L long int or larger
123LL long long int
123U unsigned int or larger
123UL unsigned long int or larger
123ULL unsigned long long int
123.4F float
123.4 double
123.4L long double
'a' char
"hello, world" char* (string)You can specify the constant in other bases as well:
123 decimal
0x123 hexadecimal
0123 octalYou can also specify floating constants in base-10 exponential notation:
1.2e3 1.2 x 10^3And you can specify floats in hex! Except in this case the exponent is still in decimal, and the base is 2 instead of 10:
0x1.2p3 0x1.2 x 2^3struct TypesYou can build a composite type made out of other types with struct and then declare variables to be of that type.
struct animal {
char *name;
int leg_count;
};
struct animal a;
struct animal b = {"goat", 4};
struct animal c = {.name="goat", .leg_count=4};Accessing is done with the dot operator (.) or, if the variable is a pointer to a struct, the arrow operator (->).
struct animal *p = b;
printf("%d\n", b.leg_count);
printf("%d\n", p->leg_count);union TypesThese are like struct types in usage, except that you can only use one field at a time. (The fields all use the same region of memory.)
union dt {
float distance;
int time;
};
union dt a;
union dt b = {6}; // Initializes "distance", the first field
union dt c = {.distance=6}; // Initializes "distance"
union dt d = {.time=6}; // Initializes "time"Accessing is done with the dot operator (.) or, if the variable is a pointer to a union, the arrow operator (->).
union dt *p = b;
printf("%d\n", b.time);
printf("%d\n", p->time);enum TypesGives you a typed way to have named constant integer values. These can be used with switch(), or as an array size, or any other place constant values are needed.
Names are conventionally capitalized.
enum animal {
ANTELOPE,
BADGER,
CAT,
DOG,
ELEPHANT,
FISH
};
enum animal a = CAT;
if (a == CAT)
printf("The animal is a cat.\n");The names have numeric values starting with zero and counting up. (In the example above, DOG would be 3.)
The numeric value can be overridden by specifying an integer exactly. Subsequent values increment from the specified one.
enum animal {
ANTELOPE = 4,
BADGER, // Will be 5
CAT, // Will be 6
DOG = 3,
ELEPHANT, // Will be 4
FISH // Will be 5
};As above, duplicate values are not illegal, but might be of marginal usefulness.
You can do this when the variable is defined, but not elsewhere.
Initializing basic types:
int x = 12;
float y = 1.2;
char c = 'a';
char *s = "Hello, world!";Initializing array types:
int a[3] = {1,2,3};
int a[] = {1,2,3}; // Same as a[3]
int a[3] = {1, 2}; // Same as {1, 2, 0}
int a[3] = {1}; // Same as {1, 0, 0}
int a[3] = {0}; // Same as {0, 0, 0}Initializing pointer types:
int q;
int *p = &q;Initializing structs:
struct s {
int a;
float b;
};
struct s x0 = {1, 2.2}; // Initialize fields in order
struct s x0 = {.a=1, .b=2.2}; // Initialize fields by name
struct s x0 = {.b=2.2, .a=1}; // Same thing
struct s x0 = {.b=2.2}; // All other fields initialized to 0
struct s x0 = {.b=2.2, .a-=0}; // Same thingInitializing unions:
union u {
int a;
float b;
};
union u x0 = {1}; // Initialize the first field (a)
union u x0 = {.a=1}; // Initialize fields by name
union u x0 = {.b=2.2};
//union u x0 = {1, 2}; // ILLEGAL
//union u x0 = {.a1, ,b=2}; // ILLEGALYou can declare “unnamed” objects in C. This is often useful for passing a struct to a function that otherwise doesn’t need a name.
You use the type name in parens followed by an initializer to make the object.
Here’s an example of passing a compound literal to a function. Note that there’s no struct s variable in main():
#include <stdio.h>
struct s {
int a, b;
};
int add(struct s x)
{
return x.a + x.b;
}
int main(void)
{
int t = add((struct s){.a=2, .b=4}); // <-- Here
printf("%d\n", t);
}Compound literals have the lifetime of their scope.
You can also pass a pointer to a compound literal by taking its address:
foo(&(struct s){1, 2});You can set up a type alias for convenience or abstraction.
Here we’ll make a new type called time_counter that is just an int. It can only be used exactly like an int. It’s just an alias for an int.
typedef int time_counter;
time_counter t = 3490;Also works with structs or unions:
struct foo {
int bar;
float baz;
};
typedef struct foo funtype;
funtype f = {1, 2}; // "funtype" is an alias for "struct foo";It also works inline, and with named or unnamed structs or unions:
typedef struct {
int bar;
float baz;
} funtype;
funtype f = {1, 2}; // "funtype" is an alias for the unnamed structYou can give the compiler more hints about what qualities a type should have using these specifiers and qualifiers.
These can be placed before a type to provide more guidance about how the type is used.
auto int a
register int a
static int a
extern int a
thread_local int aauto is the default, so it’s basically never used. Indicates automatic storage duration (things like local variables get freed automatically when they fall out of scope). In C23 this keyword changes to indicate type inference like C++.
register indicates that accessing this variable should be as quick as possible. Restricts some usage of the variable giving the compiler a chance to optimize. Rare in daily use.
static at function scope indicates that this variable’s value should persist from call to call. At file scope indicates that this variable should not be visible outside of this source file.
extern indicates that this variable refers to one declared in another source file.
_Thread_local means that every thread gets its own copy of this variable. You can use thread_local if you include <threads.h>.
These can be placed before a type to provide more guidance about how the type is used.
const int a
const int *p
int * const p
const int * const p
int * restrict p
volatile int a
atomic int aconst means the value can’t be modified. You can use it with pointers, as well:
const int a = 10; // Can't modify "a"
const int *p = &b // Can't modify the thing "p" points to ("b")
int *const p = &b // Can't modify "p"
const int *const p = &b // Can't modify "p" or the thing it points torestrict on a pointer means that there will only be one pointer to the item in question, freeing the compiler to make some optimizations.
volatile indicates that the value in a variable might change at any time and should be loaded from memory instead of being kept in a register. Usually used with memory-mapped hardware.
_Atomic (or atomic if you include <stdatomic.h>) tells the compiler that reads or writes to this type should happen atomically. (This might be accomplished with a lock depending on the platform and type.)
These are used on functions to provide additional guidance for the compiler.
_Noreturn indicates that a function will never return. It can only run forever or exit the program entirely. If you include <stdnoreturn.h>, you can use noreturn instead.
inline indicates that calls to this function should be as fast as possible. The intention here is that the code of the function be moved inline to remove the overhead of the call and return. The compiler regards inline as a suggestion, not a requirement.
You can force the alignment of a variable with memory with _Alignas. If you include <stdalign.h> you can use alignas instead.
alignas(0) has no effect.
alignas(16) int a = 12; // 16-byte alignment
alignas(long) int b = 34; // Same alignment as "long"if Statementif (boolean_expression) code;
if (boolean_expression) {
code;
code;
code;
}
if (boolean_expression) {
code;
code;
} else
code;
if (boolean_expression) {
code;
code;
} else if {
code;
code;
code;
} else {
code;
}for StatementClassic for-loop.
The bit in parens comes in three parts separated by semicolons:
For example, initialize i to 0, enter the loop body while i < 10, and then increment i after each loop iteration:
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
code;
code;
code;
}You can declare loop-local variables by specifying their type:
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
code;
code;
}You can separate parts of the expressions with the comma operator:
for (i = 0, j = 5; i < 10; i++, j *= 3) {
code;
code;
}while StatementThis loop won’t enter if the Boolean expression is false. The continuation test happens before the loop.
while (boolean_expression) code;
while (boolean_expression) {
code;
code;
}do-while StatementThis loop will run at least once even if the Boolean expression is false. The continuation test doesn’t happen until after the loop.
do code while (boolean_expression);
do {
code;
code;
} while (boolean_expression);switch StatementPerforms actions based on the value of an expression. The cases that it is compared against must be constant values.
If the optional default is present, that code is executed if none of the cases match. Braces are not required around the cases.
switch (expression) {
case constant:
code;
code;
break;
case constant:
code;
code;
break;
default:
code;
break;
}The final break in the switch is unnecessary if there are no cases after it.
If the break isn’t present, the case falls through to the next one. It’s nice to put a comment to that effect so other devs don’t hate you.
switch (expression) {
case constant:
code;
code;
// fall through!
case constant:
code;
break;
}break StatementThis breaks out of a switch case, but it also can break out of any loop.
while (boolean_expression) {
code;
if (boolean_expression)
break;
code;
}continue StatementThis can be used to short-circuit a loop and go to the next continuation condition test without completing the body of the loop.
while (boolean_expression) {
code;
code;
if (boolean_expression_2)
continue;
// If boolean_expression_2, code down here will be skipped:
code;
code;
}goto StatementYou can just jump anywhere within a function with goto. (You can’t goto between functions, only within the same function as the goto.)
The destination of the goto is a label, which is an identifier followed by a colon (:). Labels are typically left-justified all the way to the margin to make them visually stand out.
{
// Abusive demo code that should be a while loop
int i = 0;
loop:
printf("%d\n", i++);
if (i < 10)
goto loop;
}return StatementThis is how you get back from a function. You can return multiple times or just once.
If a function with void return type falls off the end, the return is implicit.
If the return type is not void, the return statement must specify a return value of the same type.
Parentheses around the return value are not necessary (as it’s a statement, not a function).
int increment(int a)
{
return a + 1;
}_Static_assert StatementThis is a way to prevent compilation of a program if a certain constant condition is not met.
_Static_assert(__STDC_VERSION__ >= 201112L, "You need at least C11!")You need to specify the return type and parameter types for the function, and the body goes in a block afterward.
Variables in the function are local to that function.
// Function that adds two numbers
int add(int x, int y)
{
int sum = x + y;
return sum;
}Functions that return nothing should be return type void. Functions that accept no parameters should have void as the parameter list.
// All side effects, all the time!
void foo(void)
{
some_global = 12;
printf("Here we go!\n");
}main() FunctionThis is the function that runs when you first start the program. It will be one of these forms:
int main(void)
int main(int argc, char *argv[])The first form ignores all command line parameters.
The second form stores the count of the command line parameters in argc, and stores the parameters themselves as an array of strings in argv. The first of these, argv[0], is typically the name of the executable. The last argv pointer has the value NULL.
The return values usually show up as exit status codes in the OS. If there is no return, falling off the end of main() is an implied return 012.
Some functions can take a variable number of arguments. Every function must have at least one argument. The remaining arguments are specified by ... and can be read with the va_start(), va_arg(), and va_end() macros.
Here’s an example that adds up a variable number of integer values.
int add(int count, ...)
{
int total = 0;
va_list va;
va_start(va, count); // Start with arguments after "count"
for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
int n = va_arg(va, int); // Get the next int
total += n;
}
va_end(va); // All done
return total;
}<assert.h> Runtime and Compile-time Diagnostics| Macro | Description |
|---|---|
assert() |
Runtime assertion |
static_assert() |
Compile-time assertion |
This functionality has to do with things that Should Never Happen™. If you have something that should never be true and you want your program to bomb out because it happened, this is the header file for you.
There are two types of assertions: compile-time assertions (called “static assertions”) and runtime assertions. If the assertion fails (i.e. the thing that you need to be true is not true) then the program will bomb out either at compile-time or runtime.
If you define the macro NDEBUG before you include <assert.h>, then the assert() macro will have no effect. You can define NDEBUG to be anything, but 1 seems like a good value.
Since assert() causes your program to bomb out at runtime, you might not desire this behavior when you go into production. Defining NDEBUG causes assert() to be ignored.
NDEBUG has no effect on static_assert().
assert()Bomb out at runtime if a condition fails
#include <assert.h>
void assert(scalar expression);You pass in an expression to this macro. If it evaluates to false, the program will crash with an assertion failure (by calling the abort() function).
Basically, you’re saying, “Hey, I’m assuming this condition is true, and if it’s not, I don’t want to continue running.”
This is used while debugging to make sure no unexpected conditions arise. And if you find during development that the condition does arise, maybe you should modify the code to handle it before going to production.
If you’ve defined the macro NDEBUG to any value before <assert.h> was included, the assert() macro is ignored. This is a good idea before production.
Unlike static_assert(), this macro doesn’t allow you to print an arbitrary message. If you want to do this, you can roll your own assert as a preprocessor macro:
#define ASSERT(c, m) \
do { \
if (!(c)) { \
fprintf(stderr, __FILE__ ":%d: assertion %s failed: %s\n", \
__LINE__, #c, m); \
exit(1); \
} \
} while(0)This macro doesn’t return (since it calls abort() which never returns).
If NDEBUG is set, the macro evaluates to ((void)0), which does nothing.
Here’s a function that divides the size of our goat herd. But we’re assuming we’ll never get a 0 passed to us.
So we assert that amount != 0… and if it is, the program aborts/
//#define NDEBUG 1 // uncomment this to disable the assert
#include <stdio.h>
#include <assert.h>
int goat_count = 10;
void divide_goat_herd_by(int amount)
{
assert(amount != 0);
goat_count /= amount;
}
int main(void)
{
divide_goat_herd_by(2); // OK
divide_goat_herd_by(0); // Causes the assert to fire
}When I run this and pass 0 to the function, I get the following on my system (the exact output may vary):
assert: assert.c:10: divide_goat_herd_by: Assertion `amount != 0' failed.static_assert()Bomb out at compile-time if a condition fails
#include <assert.h>
static_assert(constant-expression, string-literal);This macro prevents your program from even compiling if a condition isn’t true.
And it prints the string literal you give it.
Basically if constant-expression is false, then compilation will cease and the string-literal will be printed.
The constant expression must be truly constant–just values, no variables. And the same is true for the string literal: no variables, just a literal string in double quotes. (It has to be this way since the program’s not running at this point.)
Not applicable, as this is a compile-time feature.
Here’s a partial example with an algorithm that presumably has poor performance or memory issues if the size of the local array is too large. We prevent that eventuality at compile-time by catching it with the static_assert().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <assert.h>
#define ARRAY_SIZE 16
int main(void)
{
static_assert(ARRAY_SIZE > 32, "ARRAY_SIZE too small");
int a[ARRAY_SIZE];
a[32] = 10;
printf("%d\n", a[32]);
}On my system, when I try to compile it, this prints (your output may vary):
In file included from static_assert.c:2:
static_assert.c: In function ‘main’:
static_assert.c:8:5: error: static assertion failed: "ARRAY_SIZE too small"
8 | static_assert(ARRAY_SIZE > 32, "ARRAY_SIZE too small");
| ^~~~~~~~~~~~~<complex.h> Complex Number FunctionalityThe complex functions in this reference section come in three flavors each: double complex, float complex, and long double complex.
The float variants end with f and the long double variants end with l, e.g. for complex cosine:
ccos() double complex
ccosf() float complex
ccosl() long double complexThe table below only lists the double complex version for brevity.
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
cabs() |
Compute the complex absolute value |
cacos() |
Compute the complex arc-cosine |
cacosh() |
Compute the complex arc hyperbolic cosine |
carg() |
Compute the complex argument |
casin() |
Compute the complex arc-sine |
casinh() |
Compute the complex arc hyperbolic sine |
catan() |
Compute the complex arc-tangent |
catanh() |
Compute the complex arc hyperbolic tangent |
ccos() |
Compute the complex cosine |
ccosh() |
Compute the complex hyperbolic cosine |
cexp() |
Compute the complex base-\(e\) exponential |
cimag() |
Returns the imaginary part of a complex number |
clog() |
Compute the complex logarithm |
CMPLX() |
Build a complex value from real and imaginary types |
conj() |
Compute the conjugate of a complex number |
cproj() |
Compute the projection of a complex number |
creal() |
Returns the real part of a complex number |
csin() |
Compute the complex sine |
csinh() |
Compute the complex hyperbolic sine |
csqrt() |
Compute the complex square root |
ctan() |
Compute the complex tangent |
ctanh() |
Compute the complex hyperbolic tangent |
You can test for complex number support by looking at the __STDC_NO_COMPLEX__ macro. If it’s defined, complex numbers aren’t available.
There are possibly two types of numbers defined: complex and imaginary. No system I’m currently aware of implements imaginary types.
The complex types, which are a real value plus a multiple of \(i\), are:
float complex
double complex
long double complexThe imaginary types, which hold a multiple of \(i\), are:
float imaginary
double imaginary
long double imaginaryThe mathematical value \(i=\sqrt{-1}\) is represented by the symbol _Complex_I or _Imaginary_I, if it exists.
The The macro I will be preferentially set to _Imaginary_I (if it exists), or to _Complex_I otherwise.
You can write imaginary literals (if supported) using this notation:
double imaginary x = 3.4 * I;You can write complex literals using regular complex notation:
double complex x = 1.2 + 3.4 * I;or build them with the CMPLX() macro:
double complex x = CMPLX(1.2, 3.4); // Like 1.2 + 3.4 * IThe latter has the advantage of handing special cases of complex numbers correctly (like those involving infinity or signed zeroes) as if _Imaginary_I were present, even if it’s not.
All angular values are in radians.
Some functions have discontinuities called branch cuts. Now, I’m no mathematician so I can’t really talk sensibly about this, but if you’re here, I like to think you know what you’re doing when it comes to this side of things.
If you system has signed zeroes, you can tell which side of the cut you’re on by the sign. And you can’t if you don’t. The spec elaborates:
Implementations that do not support a signed zero […] cannot distinguish the sides of branch cuts. These implementations shall map a cut so the function is continuous as the cut is approached coming around the finite endpoint of the cut in a counter clockwise direction. (Branch cuts for the functions specified here have just one finite endpoint.) For example, for the square root function, coming counter clockwise around the finite endpoint of the cut along the negative real axis approaches the cut from above, so the cut maps to the positive imaginary axis.
Finally, there’s a pragma called CX_LIMITED_RANGE that can be turned on and off (default is off). You can turn it on with:
#pragma STDC CX_LIMITED_RANGE ONIt allows for certain intermediate operations to underflow, overflow, or deal badly with infinity, presumably for a tradeoff in speed. If you’re sure these types of errors won’t occur with the numbers you’re using AND you’re trying to get as much speed out as you can, you could turn this macro on.
The spec also elaborates here:
The purpose of the pragma is to allow the implementation to use the formulas:
\((x+iy)\times(u+iv) = (xu-yv)+i(yu+xv)\)
\((x+iy)/(u+iv) = [(xu+yv)+i(yu-xv)]/(u^2+v^2)\)
\(|x+iy|=\sqrt{x^2+y^2}\)
where the programmer can determine they are safe.
cacos(), cacosf(), cacosl()
Compute the complex arc-cosine
#include <complex.h>
double complex cacos(double complex z);
float complex cacosf(float complex z);
long double complex cacosl(long double complex z);Computes the complex arc-cosine of a complex number.
The complex number z will have an imaginary component in the range \([0,\pi]\), and the real component is unbounded.
There are branch cuts outside the interval \([-1,+1]\) on the real axis.
Returns the complex arc-cosine of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = cacos(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 0.195321 + -2.788006icasin(), casinf(), casinl()
Compute the complex arc-sine
#include <complex.h>
double complex casin(double complex z);
float complex casinf(float complex z);
long double complex casinl(long double complex z);Computes the complex arc-sine of a complex number.
The complex number z will have an imaginary component in the range \([-\pi/2,+\pi/2]\), and the real component is unbounded.
There are branch cuts outside the interval \([-1,+1]\) on the real axis.
Returns the complex arc-sine of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = casin(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 1.375476 + 2.788006icatan(), catanf(), catanl()
Compute the complex arc-tangent
#include <complex.h>
double complex catan(double complex z);
float complex catanf(float complex z);
long double complex catanl(long double complex z);Computes the complex arc-tangent of a complex number.
The complex number z will have an real component in the range \([-\pi/2,+\pi/2]\), and the imaginary component is unbounded.
There are branch cuts outside the interval \([-i,+i]\) on the imaginary axis.
Returns the complex arc-tangent of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double wheat = 8;
double sheep = 1.5708;
double complex x = wheat + sheep * I;
double complex y = catan(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 1.450947 + 0.023299iccos(), ccosf(), ccosl()
Compute the complex cosine
#include <complex.h>
double complex ccos(double complex z);
float complex ccosf(float complex z);
long double complex ccosl(long double complex z);Computes the complex cosine of a complex number.
Returns the complex cosine of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = ccos(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: -0.365087 + -2.276818icsin(), csinf(), csinl()
Compute the complex sine
#include <complex.h>
double complex csin(double complex z);
float complex csinf(float complex z);
long double complex csinl(long double complex z);Computes the complex sine of a complex number.
Returns the complex sine of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = csin(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 2.482485 + -0.334840ictan(), ctanf(), ctanl()
Compute the complex tangent
#include <complex.h>
double complex ctan(double complex z);
float complex ctanf(float complex z);
long double complex ctanl(long double complex z);Computes the complex tangent of a complex number.
Returns the complex tangent of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = ctan(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: -0.027073 + 1.085990icacosh(), cacoshf(), cacoshl()
Compute the complex arc hyperbolic cosine
#include <complex.h>
double complex cacosh(double complex z);
float complex cacoshf(float complex z);
long double complex cacoshl(long double complex z);Computes the complex arc hyperbolic cosine of a complex number.
There is a branch cut at values less than \(1\) on the real axis.
The return value will be non-negative on the real number axis, and in the range \([-i\pi,+i\pi]\) on the imaginary axis.
Returns the complex arc hyperbolic cosine of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = cacosh(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 2.788006 + 0.195321icasinh(), casinhf(), casinhl()
Compute the complex arc hyperbolic sine
#include <complex.h>
double complex casinh(double complex z);
float complex casinhf(float complex z);
long double complex casinhl(long double complex z);Computes the complex arc hyperbolic sine of a complex number.
There are branch cuts outside \([-i,+i]\) on the imaginary axis.
The return value will be unbounded on the real number axis, and in the range \([-i\pi/2,+i\pi/2]\) on the imaginary axis.
Returns the complex arc hyperbolic sine of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = casinh(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 2.794970 + 0.192476icatanh(), catanhf(), catanhl()
Compute the complex arc hyperbolic tangent
#include <complex.h>
double complex catanh(double complex z);
float complex catanhf(float complex z);
long double complex catanhl(long double complex z);Computes the complex arc hyperbolic tangent of a complex number.
There are branch cuts outside \([-1,+1]\) on the real axis.
The return value will be unbounded on the real number axis, and in the range \([-i\pi/2,+i\pi/2]\) on the imaginary axis.
Returns the complex arc hyperbolic tangent of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = catanh(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 0.120877 + 1.546821iccosh(), ccoshf(), ccoshl()
Compute the complex hyperbolic cosine
#include <complex.h>
double complex ccosh(double complex z);
float complex ccoshf(float complex z);
long double complex ccoshl(long double complex z);Computes the complex hyperbolic cosine of a complex number.
Returns the complex hyperbolic cosine of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = ccosh(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: -0.005475 + 1490.478826icsinh(), csinhf(), csinhl()
Compute the complex hyperbolic sine
#include <complex.h>
double complex csinh(double complex z);
float complex csinhf(float complex z);
long double complex csinhl(long double complex z);Computes the complex hyperbolic sine of a complex number.
Returns the complex hyperbolic sine of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = csinh(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: -0.005475 + 1490.479161ictanh(), ctanhf(), ctanhl()
Compute the complex hyperbolic tangent
#include <complex.h>
double complex ctanh(double complex z);
float complex ctanhf(float complex z);
long double complex ctanhl(long double complex z);Computes the complex hyperbolic tangent of a complex number.
Returns the complex hyperbolic tangent of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 8 + 1.5708 * I;
double complex y = ctanh(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 1.000000 + -0.000000icexp(), cexpf(), cexpl()
Compute the complex base-\(e\) exponential
#include <complex.h>
double complex cexp(double complex z);
float complex cexpf(float complex z);
long double complex cexpl(long double complex z);Computes the complex base-\(e\) exponential of z.
Returns the complex base-\(e\) exponential of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double complex y = cexp(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: -1.131204 + 2.471727iclog(), clogf(), clogl()
Compute the complex logarithm
#include <complex.h>
double complex clog(double complex z);
float complex clogf(float complex z);
long double complex clogl(long double complex z);Compute the base-\(e\) complex logarithm of z. There is a branch cut on the negative real axis.
The returns value is unbounded on the real axis and in the range \([-i\pi,+i\pi]\) on the imaginary axis.
Returns the base-\(e\) complex logarithm of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double complex y = clog(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 0.804719 + 1.107149icabs(), cabsf(), cabsl()
Compute the complex absolute value
#include <complex.h>
double cabs(double complex z);
float cabsf(float complex z);
long double cabsl(long double complex z);Computes the complex absolute value of z.
Returns the complex absolute value of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double complex y = cabs(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 2.236068 + 0.000000icpow(), cpowf(), cpowl()
Compute complex power
#include <complex.h>
double complex cpow(double complex x, double complex y);
float complex cpowf(float complex x, float complex y);
long double complex cpowl(long double complex x,
long double complex y);Computes the complex \(x^y\).
There is a branch cut for x along the negative real axis.
Returns the complex \(x^y\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double complex y = 3 + 4 * I;
double r = cpow(x, y);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(r), cimag(r));
}Result:
Result: 0.129010 + 0.000000icsqrt(), csqrtf(), csqrtl()
Compute the complex square root
#include <complex.h>
double complex csqrt(double complex z);
float complex csqrtf(float complex z);
long double complex csqrtl(long double complex z);Computes the complex square root of z.
There is a branch cut along the negative real axis.
The return value is in the right half of the complex plane and includes the imaginary axis.
Returns the complex square root of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double complex y = csqrt(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 1.272020 + 0.786151icarg(), cargf(), cargl()
Compute the complex argument
#include <complex.h>
double carg(double complex z);
float cargf(float complex z);
long double cargl(long double complex z);Computes the complex argument (AKA phase angle) of z.
There is a branch cut along the negative real axis.
Returns a value in the range \([-\pi,+\pi]\).
Returns the complex argument of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double y = carg(x);
printf("Result: %f\n", y);
}Output:
Result: 1.107149cimag(), cimagf(), cimagl()
Returns the imaginary part of a complex number
#include <complex.h>
double cimag(double complex z);
float cimagf(float complex z);
long double cimagl(long double complex z);Returns the imaginary part of z.
As a footnote, the spec points out that any complex number x is part of the following equivalency:
x == creal(x) + cimag(x) * I;Returns the imaginary part of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double y = cimag(x);
printf("Result: %f\n", y);
}Output—just the imaginary part:
Result: 2.000000CMPLX(), CMPLXF(), CMPLXL()
Build a complex value from real and imaginary types
#include <complex.h>
double complex CMPLX(double x, double y);
float complex CMPLXF(float x, float y);
long double complex CMPLXL(long double x, long double y);These macros build a complex value from real and imaginary types.
Now I know what you’re thinking. “But I can already build a complex value from real and imaginary types using the I macro, like in the example you’re about to give us.”
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;And that’s true.
But the reality of the matter is weird and complex.
Maybe I got undefined, or maybe you redefined it.
Or maybe I was defined as _Complex_I which doesn’t necessarily preserve the sign of a zero value.
As the spec points out, these macros build complex numbers as if _Imaginary_I were defined (thus preserving your zero sign) even if it’s not. That is, they are defined equivalently to:
#define CMPLX(x, y) ((double complex)((double)(x) + \
_Imaginary_I * (double)(y)))
#define CMPLXF(x, y) ((float complex)((float)(x) + \
_Imaginary_I * (float)(y)))
#define CMPLXL(x, y) ((long double complex)((long double)(x) + \
_Imaginary_I * (long double)(y)))Returns the complex number for the given real x and imaginary y components.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = CMPLX(1, 2); // Like 1 + 2 * I
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(x), cimag(x));
}Output:
Result: 1.000000 + 2.000000iconj(), conjf(), conjl()
Compute the conjugate of a complex number
#include <complex.h>
double complex conj(double complex z);
float complex conjf(float complex z);
long double complex conjl(long double complex z);This function computes the complex conjugate13 of z. Apparently it does this by reversing the sign of the imaginary part, but dammit, I’m a programmer not a mathematician, Jim!
Returns the complex conjugate of z
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double complex y = conj(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 1.000000 + -2.000000icproj(), cproj(), cproj()
Compute the projection of a complex number
#include <complex.h>
double complex cproj(double complex z);
float complex cprojf(float complex z);
long double complex cprojl(long double complex z);Computes the projection of z onto a Riemann sphere14.
Now we’re really outside my expertise. The spec has this to say, which I’m quoting verbatim because I’m not knowledgable enough to rewrite it sensibly. Hopefully it makes sense to anyone who would need to use this function.
zprojects tozexcept that all complex infinities (even those with one infinite part and oneNaNpart) project to positive infinity on the real axis. Ifzhas an infinite part, thencproj(z)is equivalent toINFINITY + I * copysign(0.0, cimag(z))
So there you have it.
Returns the projection of z onto a Riemann sphere.
Fingers crossed this is a remotely sane example…
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double complex y = cproj(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
x = INFINITY + 2 * I;
y = cproj(x);
printf("Result: %f + %fi\n", creal(y), cimag(y));
}Output:
Result: 1.000000 + 2.000000i
Result: inf + 0.000000icreal(), crealf(), creall()
Returns the real part of a complex number
#include <complex.h>
double creal(double complex z);
float crealf(float complex z);
long double creall(long double complex z);Returns the real part of z.
As a footnote, the spec points out that any complex number x is part of the following equivalency:
x == creal(x) + cimag(x) * I;Returns the real part of z.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <complex.h>
int main(void)
{
double complex x = 1 + 2 * I;
double y = creal(x);
printf("Result: %f\n", y);
}Output—just the real part:
Result: 1.000000<ctype.h> Character Classification and Conversion| Function | Description |
|---|---|
isalnum() |
Tests if a character is alphabetic or is a digit |
isalpha() |
Returns true if a character is alphabetic |
isblank() |
Tests if a character is word-separating whitespace |
iscntrl() |
Test if a character is a control character |
isdigit() |
Tests if a character is a digit |
isgraph() |
Tests if the character is printable and not a space |
islower() |
Tests if a character is lowercase |
isprint() |
Tests if a character is printable |
ispunct() |
Test if a character is punctuation |
isspace() |
Test if a character is whitespace |
isupper() |
Tests if a character is uppercase |
isxdigit() |
Tests if a character is a hexadecimal digit |
tolower() |
Convert a letter to lowercase |
toupper() |
Convert a letter to uppercase |
This collection of macros is good for testing characters to see if they’re of a certain class, such as alphabetic, numeric, control characters, etc.
Surprisingly, they take int arguments instead of some kind of char. This is so you can feed EOF in for convenience if you have an integer representation of that. If not EOF, the value passed in has to be representable in an unsigned char. Otherwise it’s (dun dun DUUNNNN) undefined behavior. So you can forget about passing in your UTF-8 multibyte characters.
You can portably avoid this undefined behavior by casting the arguments to these functions to (unsigned char). This is irksome and ugly, admittedly. The values in the basic character set are all safe to use since they’re positive values that fit into an unsigned char.
Also, the behavior of these functions varies based on locale.
In many of the pages in this section, I give some examples. These are from the “C” locale, and might vary if you’ve set a different locale.
Note that wide characters have their own set of classification functions, so don’t try to use these on wchar_ts. Or else!
isalnum()Tests if a character is alphabetic or is a digit
#include <ctype.h>
int isalnum(int c);Tests if a character is alphabetic (A-Z or a-z) or a digit (0-9).
Is equivalent to:
isalpha(c) || isdigit(c)Returns true if a character is alphabetic (A-Z or a-z) or a digit (0-9).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isalnum('a')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isalnum('B')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isalnum('5')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isalnum('?')? "yes": "no"); // no
}isalpha()Returns true if a character is alphabetic
#include <ctype.h>
int isalpha(int c);Returns true for alphabetic characters (A-Z or a-z).
Technically (and in the “C” locale) equivalent to:
isupper(c) || islower(c)Extra super technically, because I know you’re dying for this to be extra unnecessarily complex, it can also include some locale-specific characters for which this is true:
!iscntrl(c) && !isdigit(c) && !ispunct(c) && !isspace(c)and this is true:
isupper(c) || islower(c)Returns true for alphabetic characters (A-Z or a-z).
Or for any of the other crazy stuff in the description, above.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isalpha('a')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isalpha('B')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isalpha('5')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isalpha('?')? "yes": "no"); // no
}isblank()Tests if a character is word-separating whitespace
#include <ctype.h>
int isblank(int c);True if the character is a whitespace character used to separate words in a single line.
For example, space (' ') or horizontal tab ('\t'). Other locales might define other blank characters.
Returns true if the character is a whitespace character used to separate words in a single line.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isblank(' ')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isblank('\t')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isblank('\n')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isblank('a')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isblank('?')? "yes": "no"); // no
}iscntrl()Test if a character is a control character
#include <ctype.h>
int iscntrl(int c);A control character is a locale-specific non-printing character.
For the “C” locale, this means control characters are in the range 0x00 to 0x1F (the character right before SPACE) and 0x7F (the DEL character).
Basically if it’s not an ASCII (or Unicode less than 128) printable character, it’s a control character in the “C” locale.
Returns true if c is a control character.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", iscntrl('\t')? "yes": "no"); // yes (tab)
printf("%s\n", iscntrl('\n')? "yes": "no"); // yes (newline)
printf("%s\n", iscntrl('\r')? "yes": "no"); // yes (return)
printf("%s\n", iscntrl('\a')? "yes": "no"); // yes (bell)
printf("%s\n", iscntrl(' ')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", iscntrl('a')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", iscntrl('?')? "yes": "no"); // no
}isdigit()Tests if a character is a digit
#include <ctype.h>
int isdigit(int c);Tests if c is a digit in the range 0-9.
Returns true if the character is a digit, unsurprisingly.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isdigit('0')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isdigit('5')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isdigit('a')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isdigit('B')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isdigit('?')? "yes": "no"); // no
}isgraph()Tests if the character is printable and not a space
#include <ctype.h>
int isgraph(int c);Tests if c is any printable character that isn’t a space (' ').
Returns true if c is any printable character that isn’t a space (' ').
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isgraph('0')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isgraph('a')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isgraph('B')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isgraph('?')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isgraph(' ')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isgraph('\n')? "yes": "no"); // no
}islower()Tests if a character is lowercase
#include <ctype.h>
int islower(int c);Tests if a character is lowercase, in the range a-z.
In other locales, there could be other lowercase characters. In all cases, to be lowercase, the following must be true:
!iscntrl(c) && !isdigit(c) && !ispunct(c) && !isspace(c)Returns true if the character is lowercase.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", islower('c')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", islower('0')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", islower('B')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", islower('?')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", islower(' ')? "yes": "no"); // no
}isupper(), isalpha(), toupper(), tolower()
isprint()Tests if a character is printable
#include <ctype.h>
int isprint(int c);Tests if a character is printable, including space (' '). So like isgraph(), except space isn’t left out in the cold.
Returns true if the character is printable, including space (' ').
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isprint('c')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isprint('0')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isprint(' ')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isprint('\r')? "yes": "no"); // no
}ispunct()Test if a character is punctuation
#include <ctype.h>
int ispunct(int c);Tests if a character is punctuation.
In the “C” locale, this means:
!isspace(c) && !isalnum(c)In other locales, there could be other punctuation characters (but they also can’t be space or alphanumeric).
True if the character is punctuation.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", ispunct(',')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", ispunct('!')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", ispunct('c')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", ispunct('0')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", ispunct(' ')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", ispunct('\n')? "yes": "no"); // no
}isspace()Test if a character is whitespace
#include <ctype.h>
int isspace(int c);Tests if c is a whitespace character. These are:
' ')'\f')'\n')'\r')'\t')'\v')Other locales might specify other whitespace characters. isalnum() is false for all whitespace characters.
True if the character is whitespace.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isspace(' ')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isspace('\n')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isspace('\t')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isspace(',')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isspace('!')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isspace('c')? "yes": "no"); // no
}isupper()Tests if a character is uppercase
#include <ctype.h>
int isupper(int c);Tests if a character is uppercase, in the range A-Z.
In other locales, there could be other uppercase characters. In all cases, to be uppercase, the following must be true:
!iscntrl(c) && !isdigit(c) && !ispunct(c) && !isspace(c)Returns true if the character is uppercase.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isupper('B')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isupper('c')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isupper('0')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isupper('?')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isupper(' ')? "yes": "no"); // no
}islower(), isalpha(), toupper(), tolower()
isxdigit()Tests if a character is a hexadecimal digit
#include <ctype.h>
int isxdigit(int c);Returns true if the character is a hexadecimal digit. Namely if it’s 0-9, a-f, or A-F.
True if the character is a hexadecimal digit.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
printf("%s\n", isxdigit('B')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isxdigit('c')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isxdigit('2')? "yes": "no"); // yes
printf("%s\n", isxdigit('G')? "yes": "no"); // no
printf("%s\n", isxdigit('?')? "yes": "no"); // no
}tolower()Convert a letter to lowercase
#include <ctype.h>
int tolower(int c);If the character is uppercase (i.e. isupper(c) is true), this function returns the corresponding lowercase letter.
Different locales might have different upper- and lowercase letters.
Returns the lowercase value for an uppercase letter. If the letter isn’t uppercase, returns it unchanged.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// changing this char
// v
printf("%c\n", tolower('B')); // b (made lowercase!)
printf("%c\n", tolower('e')); // e (unchanged)
printf("%c\n", tolower('!')); // ! (unchanged)
}toupper(), islower(), isupper()
toupper()Convert a letter to uppercase
#include <ctype.h>
int toupper(int c);If the character is lower (i.e. islower(c) is true), this function returns the corresponding uppercase letter.
Different locales might have different upper- and lowercase letters.
Returns the uppercase value for a lowercase letter. If the letter isn’t lowercase, returns it unchanged.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// changing this char
// v
printf("%c\n", toupper('B')); // B (unchanged)
printf("%c\n", toupper('e')); // E (made uppercase!)
printf("%c\n", toupper('!')); // ! (unchanged)
}tolower(), islower(), isupper()
<errno.h> Error Information| Variable | Description |
|---|---|
errno |
Holds the error status of the last call |
This header defines a single variable15, errno, that can be checked to see if an error has occurred.
errno is set to 0 on startup, but no library function sets it to 0. If you’re going to use solely it to check for errors, set it to 0 before the call and then check it after. Not only that, but if there’s no error, all library functions will leave the value of errno unchanged.
Often, though, you’ll get some error indication from the function you’re calling then check errno to see what went wrong.
This is commonly used in conjunction with perror() to get a human-readable error message that corresponds to the specific error.
Important Safety Tip: You should never make your own variable called errno—that’s undefined behavior.
Note that the C Spec defines less than a handful of values errno can take on. Unix defines a bunch more16, as does Windows17.
errnoHolds the error status of the last call
errno // Type is undefined, but it's assignableIndicates the error status of the last call (note that not all calls will set this value).
| Value | Description |
|---|---|
0 |
No error |
EDOM |
Domain error (from math) |
EILSEQ |
Encoding error (from character conversion) |
ERANGE |
Range error (from math) |
If you’re doing a number of math functions, you might come across EDOM or ERANGE.
With multibyte/wide character conversion functions, you might see EILSEQ.
And your system might define any other number of values that errno could be set to, all of which will begin with the letter E.
Fun Fact: you can use EDOM, EILSEQ, and ERANGE with preprocessor directives such as #ifdef. But, frankly, I’m not sure why you’d do that other than to test their existence.
The following prints an error message, since passing 2.0 to acos() is outside the function’s domain.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <errno.h>
int main(void)
{
double x;
errno = 0; // Make sure this is clear before the call
x = acos(2.0); // Invalid argument to acos()
if (errno == EDOM)
perror("acos");
else
printf("Answer is %f\n", x);
return 0;
}Output:
acos: Numerical argument out of domainThe following prints an error message (on my system), since passing 1e+30 to exp() produces a result that’s outside the range of a double.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <errno.h>
int main(void)
{
double x;
errno = 0; // Make sure this is clear before the call
x = exp(1e+30); // Pass in some too-huge number
if (errno == ERANGE)
perror("exp");
else
printf("Answer is %f\n", x);
return 0;
}Output:
exp: Numerical result out of rangeThis example tries to convert an invalid character into a wide character, failing. This sets errno to EILSEQ. We then use perror() to print an error message.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <wchar.h>
#include <errno.h>
#include <locale.h>
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
char *bad_str = "\xff"; // Probably invalid char in this locale
wchar_t wc;
size_t result;
mbstate_t ps;
memset(&ps, 0, sizeof ps);
result = mbrtowc(&wc, bad_str, 1, &ps);
if (result == (size_t)(-1))
perror("mbrtowc"); // mbrtowc: Illegal byte sequence
else
printf("Converted to L'%lc'\n", wc);
return 0;
}Output:
mbrtowc: Invalid or incomplete multibyte or wide characterperror(), mbrtoc16(), c16rtomb(), mbrtoc32(), c32rtomb(), fgetwc(), fputwc(), mbrtowc(), wcrtomb(), mbsrtowcs(), wcsrtombs(), <math.h>,
<fenv.h> Floating Point Exceptions and Environment| Function | Description |
|---|---|
feclearexcept() |
Clear floating point exceptions |
fegetexceptflag() |
Save the floating point exception flags |
fesetexceptflag() |
Restore the floating point exception flags |
feraiseexcept() |
Raise a floating point exception through software |
fetestexcept() |
Test to see if an exception has occurred |
fegetround() |
Get the rounding direction |
fesetround() |
Set the rounding direction |
fegetenv() |
Save the entire floating point environment |
fesetenv() |
Restore the entire floating point environment |
feholdexcept() |
Save floating point state and install non-stop mode |
feupdateenv() |
Restore floating point environment and apply recent exceptions |
There are two types defined in this header:
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
fenv_t |
The entire floating point environment |
fexcept_t |
A set of floating point exceptions |
The “environment” can be thought of as the status at this moment of the floating point processing system: this includes the exceptions, rounding, etc. It’s an opaque type, so you won’t be able to access it directly, and it must be done through the proper functions.
If the functions in question exist on your system (they might not be!), then you’ll also have these macros defined to represent different exceptions:
| Macro | Description |
|---|---|
FE_DIVBYZERO |
Division by zero |
FE_INEXACT |
Result was not exact, was rounded |
FE_INVALID |
Domain error |
FE_OVERFLOW |
Numeric overflow |
FE_UNDERFLOW |
Numeric underflow |
FE_ALL_EXCEPT |
All of the above combined |
The idea is that you can bitwise-OR these together to represent multiple exceptions, e.g. FE_INVALID|FE_OVERFLOW.
The functions, below, that have an excepts parameter will take these values.
See <math.h> for which functions raise which exceptions and when.
Normally C is free to optimize all kinds of stuff that might cause the flags to not look like you might expect. So if you’re going to use this stuff, be sure to set this pragma:
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ONIf you do this at global scope, it remains in effect until you turn it off:
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS OFFIf you do it in block scope, it has to come before any statements or declarations. In this case, it has effect until the block ends (or until it is explicitly turned off.)
A caveat: this program isn’t supported on either of the compilers I have (gcc and clang) as of this writing, so though I have built the code, below, it’s not particularly well-tested.
feclearexcept()Clear floating point exceptions
#include <fenv.h>
int feclearexcept(int excepts);If a floating point exception has occurred, this function can clear it.
Set excepts to a bitwise-OR list of exceptions to clear.
Passing 0 has no effect.
Returns 0 on success and non-zero on failure.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
double f = sqrt(-1);
int r = feclearexcept(FE_INVALID);
printf("%d %f\n", r, f);
}feraiseexcept(), fetestexcept()
fegetexceptflag() fesetexceptflag()
Save or restore the floating point exception flags
#include <fenv.h>
int fegetexceptflag(fexcept_t *flagp, int excepts);
int fesetexceptflag(fexcept_t *flagp, int excepts);Use these functions to save or restore the current floating point environment in a variable.
Set excepts to the set of exceptions you want to save or restore the state of. Setting it to FE_ALL_EXCEPT will save or restore the entire state.
Note that fexcept_t is an opaque type—you don’t know what’s in it.
excepts can be set to zero for no effect.
Returns 0 on success or if excepts is zero.
Returns non-zero on failure.
This program saves the state (before any error has happened), then deliberately causes a domain error by trying to take \(\sqrt{-1}\).
After that, it restores the floating point state to before the error had occurred, thereby clearing it.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
fexcept_t flag;
fegetexceptflag(&flag, FE_ALL_EXCEPT); // Save state
double f = sqrt(-1); // I imagine this won't work
printf("%f\n", f); // "nan"
if (fetestexcept(FE_INVALID))
printf("1: Domain error\n"); // This prints!
else
printf("1: No domain error\n");
fesetexceptflag(&flag, FE_ALL_EXCEPT); // Restore to before error
if (fetestexcept(FE_INVALID))
printf("2: Domain error\n");
else
printf("2: No domain error\n"); // This prints!
}feraiseexcept()Raise a floating point exception through software
#include <fenv.h>
int feraiseexcept(int excepts);This attempts to raise a floating point exception as if it had happened.
You can specify multiple exceptions to raise.
If either FE_UNDERFLOW or FE_OVERFLOW is raised, C might also raise FE_INEXACT.
If either FE_UNDERFLOW or FE_OVERFLOW is raised at the same time as FE_INEXACT, then FE_UNDERFLOW or FE_OVERFLOW will be raised before FE_INEXACT behind the scenes.
The order the other exceptions are raised is undefined.
Returns 0 if all the exceptions were raised or if excepts is 0.
Returns non-zero otherwise.
This code deliberately raises a division-by-zero exception and then detects it.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
feraiseexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO);
if (fetestexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO) == FE_DIVBYZERO)
printf("Detected division by zero\n"); // This prints!!
else
printf("This is fine.\n");
}feclearexcept(), fetestexcept()
fetestexcept()Test to see if an exception has occurred
#include <fenv.h>
int fetestexcept(int excepts);Put the exceptions you want to test in excepts, bitwise-ORing them together.
Returns the bitwise-OR of the exceptions that have been raised.
This code deliberately raises a division-by-zero exception and then detects it.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
feraiseexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO);
if (fetestexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO) == FE_DIVBYZERO)
printf("Detected division by zero\n"); // This prints!!
else
printf("This is fine.\n");
}feclearexcept(), feraiseexcept()
fegetround() fesetround()
Get or set the rounding direction
#include <fenv.h>
int fegetround(void);
int fesetround(int round);Use these to get or set the rounding direction used by a variety of math functions.
Basically when a function “rounds” a number, it wants to know how to do it. By default, it does it how we tend to expect: if the fractional part is less than 0.5, it rounds down closer to zero, otherwise up farther from zero.
| Macro | Description |
|---|---|
FE_TONEAREST |
Round to the nearest whole number, the default |
FE_TOWARDZERO |
Round toward zero always |
FE_DOWNWARD |
Round toward the next lesser whole number |
FE_UPWARD |
Round toward the next greater whole number |
Some implementations don’t support rounding. If it does, the above macros will be defined.
Note that the round() function is always “to-nearest” and doesn’t pay attention to the rounding mode.
fegetround() returns the current rounding direction, or a negative value on error.
fesetround() returns zero on success, or non-zero on failure.
This rounds some numbers
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
// Helper function to print the rounding mode
const char *rounding_mode_str(int mode)
{
switch (mode) {
case FE_TONEAREST: return "FE_TONEAREST";
case FE_TOWARDZERO: return "FE_TOWARDZERO";
case FE_DOWNWARD: return "FE_DOWNWARD";
case FE_UPWARD: return "FE_UPWARD";
}
return "Unknown";
}
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
int rm;
rm = fegetround();
printf("%s\n", rounding_mode_str(rm)); // Print current mode
printf("%f %f\n", rint(2.1), rint(2.7)); // Try rounding
fesetround(FE_TOWARDZERO); // Set the mode
rm = fegetround();
printf("%s\n", rounding_mode_str(rm)); // Print it
printf("%f %f\n", rint(2.1), rint(2.7)); // Try it now!
}Output:
FE_TONEAREST
2.000000 3.000000
FE_TOWARDZERO
2.000000 2.000000nearbyint(), nearbyintf(), nearbyintl(), rint(), rintf(), rintl(), lrint(), lrintf(), lrintl(), llrint(), llrintf(), llrintl()
fegetenv() fesetenv()
Save or restore the entire floating point environment
#include <fenv.h>
int fegetenv(fenv_t *envp);
int fesetenv(const fenv_t *envp);You can save the environment (exceptions, rounding direction, etc.) by calling fegetenv() and restore it with fesetenv().
Use this if you want to restore the state after a function call, i.e. hide from the caller that some floating point exceptions or changes occurred.
fegetenv() and fesetenv() return 0 on success, and non-zero otherwise.
This example saves the environment, messes with the rounding and exceptions, then restores it. After the environment is restored, we see that the rounding is back to default and the exception is cleared.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
void show_status(void)
{
printf("Rounding is FE_TOWARDZERO: %d\n",
fegetround() == FE_TOWARDZERO);
printf("FE_DIVBYZERO is set: %d\n",
fetestexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO) != 0);
}
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
fenv_t env;
fegetenv(&env); // Save the environment
fesetround(FE_TOWARDZERO); // Change rounding
feraiseexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO); // Raise an exception
show_status();
fesetenv(&env); // Restore the environment
show_status();
}Output:
Rounding is FE_TOWARDZERO: 1
FE_DIVBYZERO is set: 1
Rounding is FE_TOWARDZERO: 0
FE_DIVBYZERO is set: 0feholdexcept()Save floating point state and install non-stop mode
#include <fenv.h>
int feholdexcept(fenv_t *envp);This is just like fegetenv() except that it updates the current environment to be in non-stop mode, namely it won’t halt on any exceptions.
It remains in this state until you restore the state with fesetenv() or feupdateenv().
This example saves the environment and goes into non-stop mode, messes with the rounding and exceptions, then restores it. After the environment is restored, we see that the rounding is back to default and the exception is cleared. We’ll also be out of non-stop mode.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
void show_status(void)
{
printf("Rounding is FE_TOWARDZERO: %d\n",
fegetround() == FE_TOWARDZERO);
printf("FE_DIVBYZERO is set: %d\n",
fetestexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO) != 0);
}
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
fenv_t env;
// Save the environment and don't stop on exceptions
feholdexcept(&env);
fesetround(FE_TOWARDZERO); // Change rounding
feraiseexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO); // Raise an exception
show_status();
fesetenv(&env); // Restore the environment
show_status();
}fegetenv(), fesetenv(), feupdateenv()
feupdateenv()Restore floating point environment and apply recent exceptions
#include <fenv.h>
int feupdateenv(const fenv_t *envp);This is like fesetenv() except that it modifies the passed-in environment so that it is updated with exceptions that have happened in the meantime.
So let’s say you had a function that might raise exceptions, but you wanted to hide those in the caller. One option might be to:
fegetenv() or feholdexcept().fesetenv(), thereby hiding the exceptions that happened in step 2.But that hides all exceptions. What if you just wanted to hide some of them? You could use feupdateenv() like this:
fegetenv() or feholdexcept().feclearexcept() to clear the exceptions you want to hide from the caller.feupdateenv() to restore the previous environment and update it with the other exceptions that have occurred.So it’s like a more capable way of restoring the environment than simply fegetenv()/fesetenv().
Returns 0 on success, non-zero otherwise.
This program saves state, raises some exceptions, then clears one of the exceptions, then restores and updates the state.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
void show_status(void)
{
printf("FE_DIVBYZERO: %d\n", fetestexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO) != 0);
printf("FE_INVALID : %d\n", fetestexcept(FE_INVALID) != 0);
printf("FE_OVERFLOW : %d\n\n", fetestexcept(FE_OVERFLOW) != 0);
}
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
fenv_t env;
feholdexcept(&env); // Save the environment
// Pretend some bad math happened here:
feraiseexcept(FE_DIVBYZERO); // Raise an exception
feraiseexcept(FE_INVALID); // Raise an exception
feraiseexcept(FE_OVERFLOW); // Raise an exception
show_status();
feclearexcept(FE_INVALID);
feupdateenv(&env); // Restore the environment
show_status();
}In the output, at first we have no exceptions. Then we have the three we raised. Then after we restore/update the environment, we see the one we cleared (FE_INVALID) hasn’t been applied:
FE_DIVBYZERO: 0
FE_INVALID : 0
FE_OVERFLOW : 0
FE_DIVBYZERO: 1
FE_INVALID : 1
FE_OVERFLOW : 1
FE_DIVBYZERO: 1
FE_INVALID : 0
FE_OVERFLOW : 1fegetenv(), fesetenv(), feholdexcept(), feclearexcept()
<float.h> Floating Point Limits| Macro | Minimum Magnitude | Description |
|---|---|---|
FLT_ROUNDS |
Current rounding mode | |
FLT_EVAL_METHOD |
Types used for evaluation | |
FLT_HAS_SUBNORM |
Subnormal support for float |
|
DBL_HAS_SUBNORM |
Subnormal support for double |
|
LDBL_HAS_SUBNORM |
Subnormal support for long double |
|
FLT_RADIX |
2 |
Floating point radix (base) |
FLT_MANT_DIG |
Number of base FLT_RADIX digits in a float |
|
DBL_MANT_DIG |
Number of base FLT_RADIX digits in a double |
|
LDBL_MANT_DIG |
Number of base FLT_RADIX digits in a long double |
|
FLT_DECIMAL_DIG |
6 |
Number of decimal digits required to encode a float |
DBL_DECIMAL_DIG |
10 |
Number of decimal digits required to encode a double |
LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG |
10 |
Number of decimal digits required to encode a long double |
DECIMAL_DIG |
10 |
Number of decimal digits required to encode the the widest floating point number supported |
FLT_DIG |
6 |
Number of decimal digits that can be safely stored in a float |
DBL_DIG |
10 |
Number of decimal digits that can be safely stored in a double |
LDBL_DIG |
10 |
Number of decimal digits that can be safely stored in a long double |
FLT_MIN_EXP |
FLT_RADIX to the FLT_MIN_EXP-1 power is the smallest normalized float |
|
DBL_MIN_EXP |
FLT_RADIX to the DBL_MIN_EXP-1 power is the smallest normalized double |
|
LDBL_MIN_EXP |
FLT_RADIX to the LDBL_MIN_EXP-1 power is the smallest normalized long double |
|
FLT_MIN_10_EXP |
-37 |
Minimum exponent such that 10 to this number is a normalized float |
DBL_MIN_10_EXP |
-37 |
Minimum exponent such that 10 to this number is a normalized double |
LDBL_MIN_10_EXP |
-37 |
Minimum exponent such that 10 to this number is a normalized long_double |
FLT_MAX_EXP |
FLT_RADIX to the FLT_MAX_EXP-1 power is the largest finite float |
|
DBL_MAX_EXP |
FLT_RADIX to the DBL_MAX_EXP-1 power is the largest finite double |
|
LDBL_MAX_EXP |
FLT_RADIX to the LDBL_MAX_EXP-1 power is the largest finite long double |
|
FLT_MAX_10_EXP |
-37 |
Minimum exponent such that 10 to this number is a finite float |
DBL_MAX_10_EXP |
-37 |
Minimum exponent such that 10 to this number is a finite double |
LDBL_MAX_10_EXP |
-37 |
Minimum exponent such that 10 to this number is a finite long_double |
FLT_MAX |
1E+37 |
Largest finite float |
DBL_MAX |
1E+37 |
Largest finite double |
LDBL_MAX |
1E+37 |
Largest finite long double |
| Macro | Maximum Value | Description |
|---|---|---|
FLT_EPSILON |
1E-5 |
Difference between 1 and the next biggest representable float |
DBL_EPSILON |
1E-9 |
Difference between 1 and the next biggest representable double |
LDBL_EPSILON |
1E-9 |
Difference between 1 and the next biggest representable long double |
FLT_MIN |
1E-37 |
Minimum positive normalized float |
DBL_MIN |
1E-37 |
Minimum positive normalized double |
LDBL_MIN |
1E-37 |
Minimum positive normalized long double |
FLT_TRUE_MIN |
1E-37 |
Minimum positive float |
DBL_TRUE_MIN |
1E-37 |
Minimum positive double |
LDBL_TRUE_MIN |
1E-37 |
Minimum positive long double |
The minimum and maximum values here are from the spec—they should what you can at least expect across all platforms. Your super dooper machine might do better, still!
The spec allows a lot of leeway when it comes to how C represents floating point numbers. This header file spells out the limits on those numbers.
It gives a model that can describe any floating point number that I know you’re going to absolutely love. It looks like this:
\(\displaystyle x=sb^e\sum_{k=1}^p f_k b^{-k}, e_{min} \le e \le e_{max}\)
where:
| Variable | Meaning |
|---|---|
| \(s\) | Sign, \(-1\) or \(1\) |
| \(b\) | Base (radix), probably \(2\) on your system |
| \(e\) | Exponent |
| \(p\) | Precision: how many base-\(b\) digits in the number |
| \(f_k\) | The individual digits of the number, the significand |
But let’s blissfully ignore all that for a second.
Let’s assume your computer uses base 2 for it’s floating point (it probably does). And that in the example below the 1s-and-0s numbers are in binary, and the rest are in decimal.
The short of it is you could have floating point numbers like shown in this example:
\(-0.10100101 \times 2^5 = -10100.101 = -20.625\)
That’s your fractional part multiplied by the base to the exponent’s power. The exponent controls where the decimal point is. It “floats” around!
FLT_ROUNDS DetailsThis tells you the rounding mode. It can be changed with a call to fesetround().
| Mode | Description |
|---|---|
-1 |
Indeterminable |
0 |
Toward zero |
1 |
To nearest |
2 |
Toward positive infinity |
3 |
Toward negative infinity… and beyond! |
Unlike every other macro in this here header, FLT_ROUNDS might not be a constant expression.
FLT_EVAL_METHOD DetailsThis basically tells you how floating point values are promoted to different types in expressions.
| Method | Description |
|---|---|
-1 |
Indeterminable |
0 |
Evaluate all operations and constants to the precision of their respective types |
1 |
Evaluate float and double operations as double and long double ops as long double |
2 |
Evaluate all operations and constants as long double |
The macros FLT_HAS_SUBNORM, DBL_HAS_SUBNORM, and LDBL_HAS_SUBNORM all let you know if those types support subnormal numbers18.
| Value | Description |
|---|---|
-1 |
Indeterminable |
0 |
Subnormals not supported for this type |
1 |
Subnormals supported for this type |
It depends on what you want to do.
The safe thing is if you never use more than FLT_DIG base-10 digits in your float, you’re good. (Same for DBL_DIG and LDBL_DIG for their types.)
And by “use” I mean print out, have in code, read from the keyboard, etc.
You can print out that many decimal places with printf() and the %g format specifier:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <float.h>
int main(void)
{
float pi = 3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971;
// With %g or %G, the precision refers to the number of significant
// digits:
printf("%.*g\n", FLT_DIG, pi); // For me: 3.14159
// But %f prints too many, since the precision is the number of
// digits to the right of the decimal--it doesn't count the digits
// to the left of it:
printf("%.*f\n", FLT_DIG, pi); // For me: 3.14159... 3 ???
}That’s the end, but stay tuned for the exciting conclusion of “How Many Decimal Places Can I Use?”
Because base 10 and base 2 (your typical FLT_RADIX) don’t mix very well, you can actually have more than FLT_DIG in your float; the bits of storage go out a little farther. But these might round in a way you don’t expect.
But if you want to convert a floating point number to base 10 and then be able to convert it back again to the exact same floating point number, you’ll need FLT_DECIMAL_DIG digits from your float to make sure you get those extra bits of storage represented. (And DBL_DECIMAL_DIG and LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG for those corresponding types.)
Here’s some example output that shows how the value stored might have some extra decimal places at the end.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <assert.h>
#include <float.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("FLT_DIG = %d\n", FLT_DIG);
printf("FLT_DECIMAL_DIG = %d\n\n", FLT_DECIMAL_DIG);
assert(FLT_DIG == 6); // Code below assumes this
for (float x = 0.123456; x < 0.12346; x += 0.000001) {
printf("As written: %.*g\n", FLT_DIG, x);
printf("As stored: %.*g\n\n", FLT_DECIMAL_DIG, x);
}
}And the output on my machine, starting at 0.123456 and incrementing by 0.000001 each time:
FLT_DIG = 6
FLT_DECIMAL_DIG = 9
As written: 0.123456
As stored: 0.123456001
As written: 0.123457
As stored: 0.123457
As written: 0.123458
As stored: 0.123457998
As written: 0.123459
As stored: 0.123458996
As written: 0.12346
As stored: 0.123459995You can see that the value stored isn’t always the value we’re expecting since base-2 can’t represent all base-10 fractions exactly. The best it can do is store more places and then round.
Also notice that even though we tried to stop the for loop before 0.123460, it actually ran including that value since the stored version of that number was 0.123459995, which is still less than 0.123460.
Aren’t floating point numbers fun?
Here’s a program that prints out the details for a particular machine:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <float.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("FLT_RADIX: %d\n", FLT_RADIX);
printf("FLT_ROUNDS: %d\n", FLT_ROUNDS);
printf("FLT_EVAL_METHOD: %d\n", FLT_EVAL_METHOD);
printf("DECIMAL_DIG: %d\n\n", DECIMAL_DIG);
printf("FLT_HAS_SUBNORM: %d\n", FLT_HAS_SUBNORM);
printf("FLT_MANT_DIG: %d\n", FLT_MANT_DIG);
printf("FLT_DECIMAL_DIG: %d\n", FLT_DECIMAL_DIG);
printf("FLT_DIG: %d\n", FLT_DIG);
printf("FLT_MIN_EXP: %d\n", FLT_MIN_EXP);
printf("FLT_MIN_10_EXP: %d\n", FLT_MIN_10_EXP);
printf("FLT_MAX_EXP: %d\n", FLT_MAX_EXP);
printf("FLT_MAX_10_EXP: %d\n", FLT_MAX_10_EXP);
printf("FLT_MIN: %.*e\n", FLT_DECIMAL_DIG, FLT_MIN);
printf("FLT_MAX: %.*e\n", FLT_DECIMAL_DIG, FLT_MAX);
printf("FLT_EPSILON: %.*e\n", FLT_DECIMAL_DIG, FLT_EPSILON);
printf("FLT_TRUE_MIN: %.*e\n\n", FLT_DECIMAL_DIG, FLT_TRUE_MIN);
printf("DBL_HAS_SUBNORM: %d\n", DBL_HAS_SUBNORM);
printf("DBL_MANT_DIG: %d\n", DBL_MANT_DIG);
printf("DBL_DECIMAL_DIG: %d\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG);
printf("DBL_DIG: %d\n", DBL_DIG);
printf("DBL_MIN_EXP: %d\n", DBL_MIN_EXP);
printf("DBL_MIN_10_EXP: %d\n", DBL_MIN_10_EXP);
printf("DBL_MAX_EXP: %d\n", DBL_MAX_EXP);
printf("DBL_MAX_10_EXP: %d\n", DBL_MAX_10_EXP);
printf("DBL_MIN: %.*e\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, DBL_MIN);
printf("DBL_MAX: %.*e\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, DBL_MAX);
printf("DBL_EPSILON: %.*e\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, DBL_EPSILON);
printf("DBL_TRUE_MIN: %.*e\n\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, DBL_TRUE_MIN);
printf("LDBL_HAS_SUBNORM: %d\n", LDBL_HAS_SUBNORM);
printf("LDBL_MANT_DIG: %d\n", LDBL_MANT_DIG);
printf("LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG: %d\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG);
printf("LDBL_DIG: %d\n", LDBL_DIG);
printf("LDBL_MIN_EXP: %d\n", LDBL_MIN_EXP);
printf("LDBL_MIN_10_EXP: %d\n", LDBL_MIN_10_EXP);
printf("LDBL_MAX_EXP: %d\n", LDBL_MAX_EXP);
printf("LDBL_MAX_10_EXP: %d\n", LDBL_MAX_10_EXP);
printf("LDBL_MIN: %.*Le\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG, LDBL_MIN);
printf("LDBL_MAX: %.*Le\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG, LDBL_MAX);
printf("LDBL_EPSILON: %.*Le\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG, LDBL_EPSILON);
printf("LDBL_TRUE_MIN: %.*Le\n\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG, LDBL_TRUE_MIN);
printf("sizeof(float): %zu\n", sizeof(float));
printf("sizeof(double): %zu\n", sizeof(double));
printf("sizeof(long double): %zu\n", sizeof(long double));
}And here’s the output on my machine:
FLT_RADIX: 2
FLT_ROUNDS: 1
FLT_EVAL_METHOD: 0
DECIMAL_DIG: 21
FLT_HAS_SUBNORM: 1
FLT_MANT_DIG: 24
FLT_DECIMAL_DIG: 9
FLT_DIG: 6
FLT_MIN_EXP: -125
FLT_MIN_10_EXP: -37
FLT_MAX_EXP: 128
FLT_MAX_10_EXP: 38
FLT_MIN: 1.175494351e-38
FLT_MAX: 3.402823466e+38
FLT_EPSILON: 1.192092896e-07
FLT_TRUE_MIN: 1.401298464e-45
DBL_HAS_SUBNORM: 1
DBL_MANT_DIG: 53
DBL_DECIMAL_DIG: 17
DBL_DIG: 15
DBL_MIN_EXP: -1021
DBL_MIN_10_EXP: -307
DBL_MAX_EXP: 1024
DBL_MAX_10_EXP: 308
DBL_MIN: 2.22507385850720138e-308
DBL_MAX: 1.79769313486231571e+308
DBL_EPSILON: 2.22044604925031308e-16
DBL_TRUE_MIN: 4.94065645841246544e-324
LDBL_HAS_SUBNORM: 1
LDBL_MANT_DIG: 64
LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG: 21
LDBL_DIG: 18
LDBL_MIN_EXP: -16381
LDBL_MIN_10_EXP: -4931
LDBL_MAX_EXP: 16384
LDBL_MAX_10_EXP: 4932
LDBL_MIN: 3.362103143112093506263e-4932
LDBL_MAX: 1.189731495357231765021e+4932
LDBL_EPSILON: 1.084202172485504434007e-19
LDBL_TRUE_MIN: 3.645199531882474602528e-4951
sizeof(float): 4
sizeof(double): 8
sizeof(long double): 16<inttypes.h> More Integer Conversions| Function | Description |
|---|---|
imaxabs() |
Compute the absolute value of an intmax_t |
imaxdiv() |
Compute the quotient and remainder of intmax_ts |
strtoimax() |
Convert strings to type intmax_t |
strtoumax() |
Convert strings to type uintmax_t |
wcstoimax() |
Convert wide strings to type intmax_t |
wcstoumax() |
Convert wide strings to type uintmax_t |
This header does conversions to maximum sized integers, division with maximum sized integers, and also provides format specifiers for printf() and scanf() for a variety of types defined in <stdint.h>.
The header <stdint.h> is included by this one.
These are to help with printf() and scanf() when you use a type such as int_least16_t… what format specifiers do you use?
Let’s start with printf()—all these macros start with PRI and then are followed by the format specifier you’d typically use for that type. Lastly, the number of bits is added on.
For example, the format specifier for a 64-bit integer is PRId64—the d is because you usually print integers with "%d".
An unsigned 16-bit integer could be printed with PRIu16.
These macros expand to string literals. We can take advantage of the fact that C automatically concatenates neighboring string literals and use these specifiers like this:
#include <stdio.h> // for printf()
#include <inttypes.h>
int main(void)
{
int16_t x = 32;
printf("The value is %" PRId16 "!\n", x);
}There’s nothing magical happening on line 8, above. Indeed, if I print out the value of the macro:
printf("%s\n", PRId16);we get this on my system:
hdwhich is a printf() format specifier meaning “short signed integer” .
So back to line 8, after string literal concatenation, it’s just as if I’d typed:
Here’s a table of all the macros you can use for printf() format specifiers… substitute the number of bits for N, usually 8, 16, 32, or 64.
PRIdN |
PRIdLEASTN |
PRIdFASTN |
PRIdMAX |
PRIdPTR |
PRIiN |
PRIiLEASTN |
PRIiFASTN |
PRIiMAX |
PRIiPTR |
PRIoN |
PRIoLEASTN |
PRIoFASTN |
PRIoMAX |
PRIoPTR |
PRIuN |
PRIuLEASTN |
PRIuFASTN |
PRIuMAX |
PRIuPTR |
PRIxN |
PRIxLEASTN |
PRIxFASTN |
PRIxMAX |
PRIxPTR |
PRIXN |
PRIXLEASTN |
PRIXFASTN |
PRIXMAX |
PRIXPTR |
Note again how the lowercase center letter represents the usual format specifiers you’d pass to printf(): d, i, o, u, x, and X.
And we have a similar set of macros for scanf() for reading in these various types:
SCNdN |
SCNdLEASTN |
SCNdFASTN |
SCNdMAX |
SCNdPTR |
SCNiN |
SCNiLEASTN |
SCNiFASTN |
SCNiMAX |
SCNiPTR |
SCNoN |
SCNoLEASTN |
SCNoFASTN |
SCNoMAX |
SCNoPTR |
SCNuN |
SCNuLEASTN |
SCNuFASTN |
SCNuMAX |
SCNuPTR |
SCNxN |
SCNxLEASTN |
SCNxFASTN |
SCNxMAX |
SCNxPTR |
The rule is that for each type defined in <stdint.h> there will be corresponding printf() and scanf() macros defined here.
imaxabs()Compute the absolute value of an intmax_t
#include <inttypes.h>
intmax_t imaxabs(intmax_t j);When you need the absolute value of the biggest integer type on the system, this is the function for you.
The spec notes that if the absolute value of the number cannot be represented, the behavior is undefined. This would happen if you tried to take the absolute value of the smallest possible negative number in a two’s-complement system.
Returns the absolute value of the input, \(|j|\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <inttypes.h>
int main(void)
{
intmax_t j = -3490;
printf("%jd\n", imaxabs(j)); // 3490
}imaxdiv()Compute the quotient and remainder of intmax_ts
#include <inttypes.h>
imaxdiv_t imaxdiv(intmax_t numer, intmax_t denom);When you want to do integer division and remainder in a single operation, this function will do it for you.
It computes numer/denom and numer%denom and returns the result in a structure of type imaxdiv_t.
This structure has two imaxdiv_t fields, quot and rem, that you use to retrieve the sought-after values.
Returns an imaxdiv_t containing the quotient and remainder of the operation.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <inttypes.h>
int main(void)
{
intmax_t numer = INTMAX_C(3490);
intmax_t denom = INTMAX_C(17);
imaxdiv_t r = imaxdiv(numer, denom);
printf("Quotient: %jd, remainder: %jd\n", r.quot, r.rem);
}Output:
Quotient: 205, remainder: 5strtoimax() strtoumax()
Convert strings to types intmax_t and uintmax_t
#include <inttypes.h>
intmax_t strtoimax(const char * restrict nptr, char ** restrict endptr,
int base);
uintmax_t strtoumax(const char * restrict nptr, char ** restrict endptr,
int base);These work just like the strtol() family of functions, except they return an intmax_t or uintmax_t.
See the strtol() reference page for details.
Returns the converted string as an intmax_t or uintmax_t.
If the result is out of range, the returned value will be INTMAX_MAX, INTMAX_MIN, or UINTMAX_MAX, as appropriate. And the errno variable will be set to ERANGE.
The following example converts a base-10 number to an intmax_t. Then it attempts to convert an invalid base-2 number, catching the error.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <inttypes.h>
int main(void)
{
intmax_t r;
char *endptr;
// Valid base-10 number
r = strtoimax("123456789012345", &endptr, 10);
if (*endptr != '\0')
printf("Invalid digit: %c\n", *endptr);
else
printf("Value is %jd\n", r);
// The following binary number contains an invalid digit
r = strtoimax("0100102010101101", &endptr, 2);
if (*endptr != '\0')
printf("Invalid digit: %c\n", *endptr);
else
printf("Value is %jd\n", r);
}Output:
Value is 123456789012345
Invalid digit: 2wcstoimax() wcstoumax()
Convert wide strings to types intmax_t and uintmax_t
#include <stddef.h> // for wchar_t
#include <inttypes.h>
intmax_t wcstoimax(const wchar_t * restrict nptr,
wchar_t ** restrict endptr, int base);
uintmax_t wcstoumax(const wchar_t * restrict nptr,
wchar_t ** restrict endptr, int base);These work just like the wcstol() family of functions, except they return an intmax_t or uintmax_t.
See the wcstol() reference page for details.
Returns the converted wide string as an intmax_t or uintmax_t.
If the result is out of range, the returned value will be INTMAX_MAX, INTMAX_MIN, or UINTMAX_MAX, as appropriate. And the errno variable will be set to ERANGE.
The following example converts a base-10 number to an intmax_t. Then it attempts to convert an invalid base-2 number, catching the error.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <inttypes.h>
int main(void)
{
intmax_t r;
wchar_t *endptr;
// Valid base-10 number
r = wcstoimax(L"123456789012345", &endptr, 10);
if (*endptr != '\0')
wprintf(L"Invalid digit: %lc\n", *endptr);
else
wprintf(L"Value is %jd\n", r);
// The following binary number contains an invalid digit
r = wcstoimax(L"0100102010101101", &endptr, 2);
if (*endptr != '\0')
wprintf(L"Invalid digit: %lc\n", *endptr);
else
wprintf(L"Value is %jd\n", r);
}Value is 123456789012345
Invalid digit: 2<iso646.h> Alternative Operator SpellingsISO-646 is a character encoding standard that’s very similar to ASCII. But it’s missing a few notable characters, like |, ^, and ~.
Since these are operators or parts of operators in C, this header file defines a number of macros you can use in case those characters aren’t found on your keyboard. (And also C++ can use these same alternate spellings.)
| Operator | <iso646.h> equivalent |
|---|---|
&& |
and |
&= |
and_eq |
& |
bitand |
| |
bitor |
~ |
compl |
! |
not |
!= |
not_eq |
|| |
or |
|= |
or_eq |
^ |
xor |
^= |
xor_eq |
Interestingly, there is no eq for ==, and & and ! are included despite being in ISO-646.
Example usage:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <iso646.h>
int main(void)
{
int x = 12;
int y = 30;
if (x == 12 and y not_eq 40)
printf("Now we know.\n");
}I’ve personally never seen this file included, but I’m sure it gets used from time to time.
<limits.h> Numeric LimitsImportant note: the “minimum magnitude” in the table below is the minimum allowed by the spec. It’s very likely that the values on your bad-ass system exceed those, below.
| Macro | Minimum Magnitude | Description |
|---|---|---|
CHAR_BIT |
8 |
Number of bits in a byte |
SCHAR_MIN |
-127 |
Minimum value of a signed char |
SCHAR_MAX |
127 |
Maximum value of a signed char |
UCHAR_MAX |
255 |
Maximum value of an unsigned char19 |
CHAR_MIN |
0 or SCHAR_MIN |
More detail below |
CHAR_MAX |
SCHAR_MAX or UCHAR_MAX |
More detail below |
MB_LEN_MAX |
1 |
Maximum number of bytes in a multibyte character on any locale |
SHRT_MIN |
-32767 |
Minimum value of a short |
SHRT_MAX |
32767 |
Maximum value of a short |
USHRT_MAX |
65535 |
Maximum value of an unsigned short |
INT_MIN |
-32767 |
Minimum vale of an int |
INT_MAX |
32767 |
Maximum value of an int |
UINT_MAX |
65535 |
Maximum value of an unsigned int |
LONG_MIN |
-2147483647 |
Minimum value of a long |
LONG_MAX |
2147483647 |
Maximum value of a long |
ULONG_MAX |
4294967295 |
Maximum value of an unsigned long |
LLONG_MIN |
-9223372036854775807 |
Minimum value of a long long |
LLONG_MAX |
9223372036854775807 |
Maximum value of a long long |
ULLONG_MAX |
18446744073709551615 |
Maximum value of an unsigned long long |
CHAR_MIN and CHAR_MAXWhen it comes to the CHAR_MIN and CHAR_MAX macros, it all depends on if your char type is signed or unsigned by default. Remember that C leaves that up to the implementation? No? Well, it does.
So if it’s signed, the values of CHAR_MIN and CHAR_MAX are the same as SCHAR_MIN and SCHAR_MAX.
And if it’s unsigned, the values of CHAR_MIN and CHAR_MAX are the same as 0 and UCHAR_MAX.
Side benefit: you can tell at runtime if the system has signed or unsigned chars by checking to see if CHAR_MIN is 0.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <limits.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("chars are %ssigned\n", CHAR_MIN == 0? "un": "");
}On my system, chars are signed.
If you want to be super portable, choose a type you know will be at least as big as you need by the table, above.
That said, a lot of code, for better or (likely) worse, assumes ints are 32-bits, when in actuality it’s only guaranteed to be 16.
If you need a guaranteed bit size, check out the int_leastN_t types in <stdint.h>.
If you were looking closely and have a priori knowledge of the matter, you might have thought I erred in the minimum values of the macros, above.
“short goes from 32767 to -32767? Shouldn’t it go to -32768?”
No, I have it right. The spec list the minimum magnitudes for those macros, and some old-timey systems might have used a different encoding for their signed values that could only go that far.
Virtually every modern system uses Two’s Complement20 for signed numbers, and those would go from 32767 to -32768 for a short. Your system probably does, too.
Here’s a program to print out the values of the macros:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <limits.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("CHAR_BIT = %d\n", CHAR_BIT);
printf("SCHAR_MIN = %d\n", SCHAR_MIN);
printf("SCHAR_MAX = %d\n", SCHAR_MAX);
printf("UCHAR_MAX = %d\n", UCHAR_MAX);
printf("CHAR_MIN = %d\n", CHAR_MIN);
printf("CHAR_MAX = %d\n", CHAR_MAX);
printf("MB_LEN_MAX = %d\n", MB_LEN_MAX);
printf("SHRT_MIN = %d\n", SHRT_MIN);
printf("SHRT_MAX = %d\n", SHRT_MAX);
printf("USHRT_MAX = %u\n", USHRT_MAX);
printf("INT_MIN = %d\n", INT_MIN);
printf("INT_MAX = %d\n", INT_MAX);
printf("UINT_MAX = %u\n", UINT_MAX);
printf("LONG_MIN = %ld\n", LONG_MIN);
printf("LONG_MAX = %ld\n", LONG_MAX);
printf("ULONG_MAX = %lu\n", ULONG_MAX);
printf("LLONG_MIN = %lld\n", LLONG_MIN);
printf("LLONG_MAX = %lld\n", LLONG_MAX);
printf("ULLONG_MAX = %llu\n", ULLONG_MAX);
}On my 64-bit Intel system with clang, this outputs:
CHAR_BIT = 8
SCHAR_MIN = -128
SCHAR_MAX = 127
UCHAR_MAX = 255
CHAR_MIN = -128
CHAR_MAX = 127
MB_LEN_MAX = 6
SHRT_MIN = -32768
SHRT_MAX = 32767
USHRT_MAX = 65535
INT_MIN = -2147483648
INT_MAX = 2147483647
UINT_MAX = 4294967295
LONG_MIN = -9223372036854775808
LONG_MAX = 9223372036854775807
ULONG_MAX = 18446744073709551615
LLONG_MIN = -9223372036854775808
LLONG_MAX = 9223372036854775807
ULLONG_MAX = 18446744073709551615Looks like my system probably uses two’s-complement encoding for signed numbers, my chars are signed, and my ints are 32-bit.
<locale.h> locale handling| Function | Description |
|---|---|
setlocale() |
Set the locale |
localeconv() |
Get information about the current locale |
The “locale” is the details of how the program should run given its physical location on the planet.
For example, in one locale, a unit of money might be printed as $123, and in another €123.
Or one locale might use ASCII encoding and another UTF-8 encoding.
By default, the program runs in the “C” locale. It has a basic set of characters with a single-byte encoding. If you try to print UTF-8 characters in the C locale, nothing will print. You have to switch to a proper locale.
setlocale()Set the locale
#include <locale.h>
char *setlocale(int category, const char *locale);Sets the locale for the given category.
Category is one of the following:
| Category | Description |
|---|---|
LC_ALL |
All of the following categories |
LC_COLLATE |
Affects the strcoll() and strxfrm() functions |
LC_CTYPE |
Affects the functions in <ctype.h> |
LC_MONETARY |
Affects the monetary information returned from localeconv() |
LC_NUMERIC |
Affects the decimal point for formatted I/O and formatted string functions, and the monetary information returned from localeconv() |
LC_TIME |
Affects the strftime() and wcsftime() functions |
And there are three portable things you can pass in for locale; any other string passed in is implementation-defined and non-portable.
| Locale | Description |
|---|---|
"C" |
Set the program to the C locale |
"" |
(Empty string) Set the program to the native locale of this system |
NULL |
Change nothing; just return the current locale |
| Other | Set the program to an implementation-defined locale |
The most common call, I’d wager, is this:
// Set all locale settings to the local, native locale
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");Handily, setlocale() returns the locale that was just set, so you could see what the actual locale is on your system.
On success, returns a pointer to the string representing the current locale. You may not modify this string, and it might be changed by subsequent calls to setlocale().
On failure, returns NULL.
Here we get the current locale. Then we set it to the native locale, and print out what that is.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <locale.h>
int main(void)
{
char *loc;
// Get the current locale
loc = setlocale(LC_ALL, NULL);
printf("Starting locale: %s\n", loc);
// Set (and get) the locale to native locale
loc = setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
printf("Native locale: %s\n", loc);
}Output on my system:
Starting locale: C
Native locale: en_US.UTF-8Note that my native locale (on a Linux box) might be different from what you see.
Nevertheless, I can explicitly set it on my system without a problem, or to any other locale I have installed:
But again, your system might have different locales defined.
localeconv(), strcoll(), strxfrm(), strftime(), wcsftime(), printf(), scanf(), <ctype.h>
localeconv()Get information about the current locale
#include <locale.h>
struct lconv *localeconv(void);This function just returns a pointer to a struct lconv, but is still a bit of a powerhouse.
The returned structure contains tons of information about the locale. Here are the fields of struct lconv and their meanings.
First, some conventions. In the field names, below, a _p_ means “positive”, and _n_ means “negative”, and int_ means “international”. Though a lot of these are type char or char*, most (or the strings they point to) are actually treated as integers21.
Before we go further, know that CHAR_MAX (from <limits.h>) is the maximum value that can be held in a char. And that many of the following char values use that to indicate the value isn’t available in the given locale.
| Field | Description |
|---|---|
char *mon_decimal_point |
Decimal pointer character for money, e.g. ".". |
char *mon_thousands_sep |
Thousands separator character for money, e.g. ",". |
char *mon_grouping |
Grouping description for money (see below). |
char *positive_sign |
Positive sign for money, e.g. "+" or "". |
char *negative_sign |
Negative sign for money, e.g. "-". |
char *currency_symbol |
Currency symbol, e.g. "$". |
char frac_digits |
When printing monetary amounts, how many digits to print past the decimal point, e.g. 2. |
char p_cs_precedes |
1 if the currency_symbol comes before the value for a non-negative monetary amount, 0 if after. |
char n_cs_precedes |
1 if the currency_symbol comes before the value for a negative monetary amount, 0 if after. |
char p_sep_by_space |
Determines the separation of the currency symbol from the value for non-negative amounts (see below). |
char n_sep_by_space |
Determines the separation of the currency symbol from the value for negative amounts (see below). |
char p_sign_posn |
Determines the positive_sign position for non-negative values. |
char p_sign_posn |
Determines the positive_sign position for negative values. |
char *int_curr_symbol |
International currency symbol, e.g. "USD ". |
char int_frac_digits |
International value for frac_digits. |
char int_p_cs_precedes |
International value for p_cs_precedes. |
char int_n_cs_precedes |
International value for n_cs_precedes. |
char int_p_sep_by_space |
International value for p_sep_by_space. |
char int_n_sep_by_space |
International value for n_sep_by_space. |
char int_p_sign_posn |
International value for p_sign_posn. |
char int_n_sign_posn |
International value for n_sign_posn. |
Even though many of these have char type, the value stored within is meant to be accessed as an integer.
All the sep_by_space variants deal with spacing around the currency sign. Valid values are:
| Value | Description |
|---|---|
0 |
No space between currency symbol and value. |
1 |
Separate the currency symbol (and sign, if any) from the value with a space. |
2 |
Separate the sign symbol from the currency symbol (if adjacent) with a space, otherwise separate the sign symbol from the value with a space. |
The sign_posn variants are determined by the following values:
| Value | Description |
|---|---|
0 |
Put parens around the value and the currency symbol. |
1 |
Put the sign string in front of the currency symbol and value. |
2 |
Put the sign string after the currency symbol and value. |
3 |
Put the sign string directly in front of the currency symbol. |
4 |
Put the sign string directly behind the currency symbol. |
Returns a pointer to the structure containing the locale information.
The program may not modify this structure.
Subsequent calls to localeconv() may overwrite this structure, as might calls to setlocale() with LC_ALL, LC_MONETARY, or LC_NUMERIC.
Here’s a program to print the locale information for the native locale.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <locale.h>
#include <limits.h> // for CHAR_MAX
void print_grouping(char *mg)
{
int done = 0;
while (!done) {
if (*mg == CHAR_MAX)
printf("CHAR_MAX ");
else
printf("%c ", *mg + '0');
done = *mg == CHAR_MAX || *mg == 0;
mg++;
}
}
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
struct lconv *lc = localeconv();
printf("mon_decimal_point : %s\n", lc->mon_decimal_point);
printf("mon_thousands_sep : %s\n", lc->mon_thousands_sep);
printf("mon_grouping : ");
print_grouping(lc->mon_grouping);
printf("\n");
printf("positive_sign : %s\n", lc->positive_sign);
printf("negative_sign : %s\n", lc->negative_sign);
printf("currency_symbol : %s\n", lc->currency_symbol);
printf("frac_digits : %c\n", lc->frac_digits);
printf("p_cs_precedes : %c\n", lc->p_cs_precedes);
printf("n_cs_precedes : %c\n", lc->n_cs_precedes);
printf("p_sep_by_space : %c\n", lc->p_sep_by_space);
printf("n_sep_by_space : %c\n", lc->n_sep_by_space);
printf("p_sign_posn : %c\n", lc->p_sign_posn);
printf("p_sign_posn : %c\n", lc->p_sign_posn);
printf("int_curr_symbol : %s\n", lc->int_curr_symbol);
printf("int_frac_digits : %c\n", lc->int_frac_digits);
printf("int_p_cs_precedes : %c\n", lc->int_p_cs_precedes);
printf("int_n_cs_precedes : %c\n", lc->int_n_cs_precedes);
printf("int_p_sep_by_space: %c\n", lc->int_p_sep_by_space);
printf("int_n_sep_by_space: %c\n", lc->int_n_sep_by_space);
printf("int_p_sign_posn : %c\n", lc->int_p_sign_posn);
printf("int_n_sign_posn : %c\n", lc->int_n_sign_posn);
}Output on my system:
mon_decimal_point : .
mon_thousands_sep : ,
mon_grouping : 3 3 0
positive_sign :
negative_sign : -
currency_symbol : $
frac_digits : 2
p_cs_precedes : 1
n_cs_precedes : 1
p_sep_by_space : 0
n_sep_by_space : 0
p_sign_posn : 1
p_sign_posn : 1
int_curr_symbol : USD
int_frac_digits : 2
int_p_cs_precedes : 1
int_n_cs_precedes : 1
int_p_sep_by_space: 1
int_n_sep_by_space: 1
int_p_sign_posn : 1
int_n_sign_posn : 1<math.h> MathematicsMany of the following functions have float and long double variants as described below (e.g. pow(), powf(), powl()). The float and long double variants are omitted from the following table to keep your eyeballs from melting out.
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
acos() |
Calculate the arc cosine of a number. |
acosh() |
Compute arc hyperbolic cosine. |
asin() |
Calculate the arc sine of a number. |
asinh() |
Compute arc hyperbolic sine. |
atan(), atan2() |
Calculate the arc tangent of a number. |
atanh() |
Compute the arc hyperbolic tangent. |
cbrt() |
Compute the cube root. |
ceil() |
Ceiling—return the next whole number not smaller than the given number. |
copysign() |
Copy the sign of one value into another. |
cos() |
Calculate the cosine of a number. |
cosh() |
Compute the hyperbolic cosine. |
erf() |
Compute the error function of the given value. |
erfc() |
Compute the complementary error function of a value. |
exp() |
Compute \(e\) raised to a power. |
exp2() |
Compute 2 to a power. |
expm1() |
Compute \(e^x-1\). |
fabs() |
Compute the absolute value. |
fdim() |
Return the positive difference between two numbers clamped at 0. |
floor() |
Compute the largest whole number not larger than the given value. |
fma() |
Floating (AKA “Fast”) multiply and add. |
fmax(), fmin() |
Return the maximum or minimum of two numbers. |
fmod() |
Compute the floating point remainder. |
fpclassify() |
Return the classification of a given floating point number. |
frexp() |
Break a number into its fraction part and exponent (as a power of 2). |
hypot() |
Compute the length of the hypotenuse of a triangle. |
ilogb() |
Return the exponent of a floating point number. |
isfinite() |
True if the number is not infinite or NaN. |
isgreater() |
True if one argument is greater than another. |
isgreatereequal() |
True if one argument is greater than or equal to another. |
isinf() |
True if the number is infinite. |
isless() |
True if one argument is less than another. |
islesseequal() |
True if one argument is less than or equal to another. |
islessgreater() |
Test if a floating point number is less than or greater than another. |
isnan() |
True if the number is Not-a-Number. |
isnormal() |
True if the number is normal. |
isunordered() |
Macro returns true if either floating point argument is NaN. |
ldexp() |
Multiply a number by an integral power of 2. |
lgamma() |
Compute the natural logarithm of the absolute value of \(\Gamma(x)\). |
log() |
Compute the natural logarithm. |
log10() |
Compute the log-base-10 of a number. |
log2() |
Compute the base-2 logarithm of a number. |
logb() |
Extract the exponent of a number given FLT_RADIX. |
log1p() |
Compute the natural logarithm of a number plus 1. |
lrint() |
Returns x rounded in the current rounding direction as an integer. |
lround(), llround() |
Round a number in the good old-fashioned way, returning an integer. |
modf() |
Extract the integral and fractional parts of a number. |
nan() |
Return NAN. |
nearbyint() |
Rounds a value in the current rounding direction. |
nextafter() |
Get the next (or previous) representable floating point value. |
nexttoward() |
Get the next (or previous) representable floating point value. |
pow() |
Compute a value raised to a power. |
remainder() |
Compute the remainder IEC 60559-style. |
remquo() |
Compute the remainder and (some of the) quotient. |
rint() |
Rounds a value in the current rounding direction. |
round() |
Round a number in the good old-fashioned way. |
scalbn(), scalbln() |
Efficiently compute \(x\times r^n\), where \(r\) is FLT_RADIX. |
signbit() |
Return the sign of a number. |
sin() |
Calculate the sine of a number. |
sqrt() |
Calculate the square root of a number. |
tan() |
Calculate the tangent of a number. |
tanh() |
Compute the hyperbolic tangent. |
tgamma() |
Compute the gamma function, \(\Gamma(x)\). |
trunc() |
Truncate the fractional part off a floating point value. |
It’s your favorite subject: Mathematics! Hello, I’m Doctor Math, and I’ll be making math FUN and EASY!
[vomiting sounds]
Ok, I know math isn’t the grandest thing for some of you out there, but these are merely functions that quickly and easily do math you either know, want, or just don’t care about. That pretty much covers it.
Many of these math functions exist in three forms, each corresponding to the argument and/or return types the function uses, float, double, or long double.
The alternate form for float is made by appending f to the end of the function name.
The alternate form for long double is made by appending l to the end of the function name.
For example, the pow() function, which computes \(x^y\), exists in these forms:
double pow(double x, double y); // double
float powf(float x, float y); // float
long double powl(long double x, long double y); // long doubleRemember that parameters are given values as if you assigned into them. So if you pass a double to powf(), it’ll choose the closest float it can to hold the double. If the double doesn’t fit, undefined behavior happens.
We have two exciting new types in <math.h>:
float_tdouble_tThe float_t type is at least as accurate as a float, and the double_t type is at least as accurate as a double.
The idea with these types is they can represent the most efficient way of storing numbers for maximum speed.
Their actual types vary by implementation, but can be determined by the value of the FLT_EVAL_METHOD macro.
FLT_EVAL_METHOD |
float_t type |
double_t type |
|---|---|---|
0 |
float |
double |
1 |
double |
double |
2 |
long double |
long double |
| Other | Implementation-defined | Implementation-defined |
For all defined values of FLT_EVAL_METHOD, float_t is the least-precise type used for all floating calculations.
There are actually a number of these defined, but we’ll cover most of them in their relevant reference sections, below.
But here are a couple:
NAN represents Not-A-Number.
Defined in <float.h> is FLT_RADIX: the number base used by floating point numbers. This is commonly 2, but could be anything.
As we know, nothing can ever go wrong with math… except everything!
So there are just a couple errors that might occur when using some of these functions.
Range errors mean that some result is beyond what can be stored in the result type.
Domain errors mean that you’ve passed in an argument that doesn’t have a defined result for this function.
Pole errors mean that the limit of the function as \(x\) approaches the given argument is infinite.
Overflow errors are when the result is really large, but can’t be stored without incurring large roundoff error.
Underflow errors are like overflow errors, except with very small numbers.
Now, the C math library can do a couple things when these errors occur:
errno to some value, or…Your system might vary on what happens. You can check it by looking at the value of the variable math_errhandling. It will be equivalent to one of the following22:
math_errhandling |
Description |
|---|---|
MATH_ERRNO |
The system uses errno for math errors. |
MATH_ERREXCEPT |
The system uses exceptions for math errors. |
MATH_ERRNO | MATH_ERREXCEPT |
The system does both! (That’s a bitwise-OR!) |
You are not allowed to change math_errhandling.
For a fuller description on how exceptions work and their meanings, see the <fenv.h> section.
In a nutshell, pragmas offer various ways to control the compiler’s behavior. In this case, we’re talking about controlling how C’s math library works.
In specific, we have a pragma FP_CONTRACT that can be turned off and on.
What does it mean?
First of all, keep in mind that any operation in an expression can cause rounding error. So each step of the expression can introduce more rounding error.
But what if the compiler knows a double secret way of taking the expression you wrote and converting it to a single instruction that reduced the number of steps such that the intermediate rounding error didn’t occur?
Could it use it? I mean, the results would be different than if you let the rounding error settle each step of the way…
Because the results would be different, you can tell the compiler if you want to allow it to do this or not.
If you want to allow it:
#pragma STDC FP_CONTRACT ONand to disallow it:
#pragma STDC FP_CONTRACT OFFIf you do this at global scope, it stays at whatever state you set it to until you change it.
If you do it at block scope, it reverts to the value outside the block when the block ends.
The initial value of the FP_CONTRACT pragma varies from system to system.
fpclassify()Return the classification of a given floating point number.
#include <math.h>
int fpclassify(any_floating_type x);What kind of entity does this floating point number represent? What are the options?
We’re used to floating point numbers being regular old things like 3.14 or 3490.0001.
But floating point numbers can also represent things like infinity. Or Not-A-Number (NAN). This function will let you know which type of floating point number the argument is.
This is a macro, so you can use it with float, double, long double or anything similar.
Returns one of these macros depending on the argument’s classification:
| Classification | Description |
|---|---|
FP_INFINITE |
Number is infinite. |
FP_NAN |
Number is Not-A-Number (NAN). |
FP_NORMAL |
Just a regular number. |
FP_SUBNORMAL |
Number is a sub-normal number. |
FP_ZERO |
Number is zero. |
A discussion of subnormal numbers is beyond the scope of the guide, and is something that most devs go their whole lives without dealing with. In a nutshell, it’s a way to represent really small numbers that might normally round down to zero. If you want to know more, see the Wikipedia page on denormal numbers23.
Print various number classifications.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
const char *get_classification(double n)
{
switch (fpclassify(n)) {
case FP_INFINITE: return "infinity";
case FP_NAN: return "not a number";
case FP_NORMAL: return "normal";
case FP_SUBNORMAL: return "subnormal";
case FP_ZERO: return "zero";
}
return "unknown";
}
int main(void)
{
printf(" 1.23: %s\n", get_classification(1.23));
printf(" 0.0: %s\n", get_classification(0.0));
printf("sqrt(-1): %s\n", get_classification(sqrt(-1)));
printf("1/tan(0): %s\n", get_classification(1/tan(0)));
printf(" 1e-310: %s\n", get_classification(1e-310)); // very small!
}Output24:
1.23: normal
0.0: zero
sqrt(-1): not a number
1/tan(0): infinity
1e-310: subnormalisfinite(), isinf(), isnan(), isnormal(), signbit()
isfinite(), isinf(), isnan(), isnormal()
Return true if a number matches a classification.
#include <math.h>
int isfinite(any_floating_type x);
int isinf(any_floating_type x);
int isnan(any_floating_type x);
int isnormal(any_floating_type x);These are helper macros to fpclassify(). Bring macros, they work on any floating point type.
| Macro | Description |
|---|---|
isfinite() |
True if the number is not infinite or NaN. |
isinf() |
True if the number is infinite. |
isnan() |
True if the number is Not-a-Number. |
isnormal() |
True if the number is normal. |
For more superficial discussion on normal and subnormal numbers, see fpclassify().
Returns non-zero for true, and zero for false.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf(" isfinite(1.23): %d\n", isfinite(1.23)); // 1
printf(" isinf(1/tan(0)): %d\n", isinf(1/tan(0))); // 1
printf(" isnan(sqrt(-1)): %d\n", isnan(sqrt(-1))); // 1
printf("isnormal(1e-310): %d\n", isnormal(1e-310)); // 0
}signbit()Return the sign of a number.
#include <math.h>
int signbit(any_floating_type x);This macro takes any floating point number and returns a value indicating the sign of the number, positive or negative.
Returns 1 if the sign is negative, otherwise 0.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%d\n", signbit(3490.0)); // 0
printf("%d\n", signbit(-37.0)); // 1
}fpclassify(), isfinite(), isinf(), isnan(), isnormal(), copysign()
acos(), acosf(), acosl()
Calculate the arc cosine of a number.
#include <math.h>
double acos(double x);
float acosf(float x);
long double acosl(long double x);Calculates the arc cosine of a number in radians. (That is, the value whose cosine is x.) The number must be in the range -1.0 to 1.0.
For those of you who don’t remember, radians are another way of measuring an angle, just like degrees. To convert from degrees to radians or the other way around, use the following code:
pi = 3.14159265358979;
degrees = radians * 180 / pi;
radians = degrees * pi / 180;Returns the arc cosine of x, unless x is out of range. In that case, errno will be set to EDOM and the return value will be NaN. The variants return different types.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double acosx;
long double ldacosx;
acosx = acos(0.2);
ldacosx = acosl(0.3L);
printf("%f\n", acosx);
printf("%Lf\n", ldacosx);
}asin(), atan(), atan2(), cos()
asin(), asinf(), asinl()
Calculate the arc sine of a number.
#include <math.h>
double asin(double x);
float asinf(float x);
long double asinl(long double x);Calculates the arc sine of a number in radians. (That is, the value whose sine is x.) The number must be in the range -1.0 to 1.0.
For those of you who don’t remember, radians are another way of measuring an angle, just like degrees. To convert from degrees to radians or the other way around, use the following code:
pi = 3.14159265358979;
degrees = radians * 180 / pi;
radians = degrees * pi / 180;Returns the arc sine of x, unless x is out of range. In that case, errno will be set to EDOM and the return value will be NaN. The variants return different types.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double asinx;
long double ldasinx;
asinx = asin(0.2);
ldasinx = asinl(0.3L);
printf("%f\n", asinx);
printf("%Lf\n", ldasinx);
}acos(), atan(), atan2(), sin()
atan(), atanf(), atanl(), atan2(), atan2f(), atan2l()
Calculate the arc tangent of a number.
#include <math.h>
double atan(double x);
float atanf(float x);
long double atanl(long double x);
double atan2(double y, double x);
float atan2f(float y, float x);
long double atan2l(long double y, long double x);Calculates the arc tangent of a number in radians. (That is, the value whose tangent is x.)
The atan2() variants are pretty much the same as using atan() with y/x as the argument…except that atan2() will use those values to determine the correct quadrant of the result.
For those of you who don’t remember, radians are another way of measuring an angle, just like degrees. To convert from degrees to radians or the other way around, use the following code:
pi = 3.14159265358979;
degrees = radians * 180 / pi;
radians = degrees * pi / 180;The atan() functions return the arc tangent of x, which will be between PI/2 and -PI/2. The atan2() functions return an angle between PI and -PI.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double atanx;
long double ldatanx;
atanx = atan(0.7);
ldatanx = atanl(0.3L);
printf("%f\n", atanx);
printf("%Lf\n", ldatanx);
atanx = atan2(7, 10);
ldatanx = atan2l(3L, 10L);
printf("%f\n", atanx);
printf("%Lf\n", ldatanx);
}cos(), cosf(), cosl()
Calculate the cosine of a number.
#include <math.h>
double cos(double x)
float cosf(float x)
long double cosl(long double x)Calculates the cosine of the value x, where x is in radians.
For those of you who don’t remember, radians are another way of measuring an angle, just like degrees. To convert from degrees to radians or the other way around, use the following code:
pi = 3.14159265358979;
degrees = radians * 180 / pi;
radians = degrees * pi / 180;Returns the cosine of x. The variants return different types.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double cosx;
long double ldcosx;
cosx = cos(3490.0); // round and round we go!
ldcosx = cosl(3.490L);
printf("%f\n", cosx);
printf("%Lf\n", ldcosx);
}sin(), sinf(), sinl()
Calculate the sine of a number.
#include <math.h>
double sin(double x);
float sinf(float x);
long double sinl(long double x);Calculates the sine of the value x, where x is in radians.
For those of you who don’t remember, radians are another way of measuring an angle, just like degrees. To convert from degrees to radians or the other way around, use the following code:
pi = 3.14159265358979;
degrees = radians * 180 / pi;
radians = degrees * pi / 180;Returns the sine of x. The variants return different types.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double sinx;
long double ldsinx;
sinx = sin(3490.0); // round and round we go!
ldsinx = sinl(3.490L);
printf("%f\n", sinx);
printf("%Lf\n", ldsinx);
}tan(), tanf(), tanl()
Calculate the tangent of a number.
#include <math.h>
double tan(double x)
float tanf(float x)
long double tanl(long double x)Calculates the tangent of the value x, where x is in radians.
For those of you who don’t remember, radians are another way of measuring an angle, just like degrees. To convert from degrees to radians or the other way around, use the following code:
pi = 3.14159265358979;
degrees = radians * 180 / pi;
radians = degrees * pi / 180;Returns the tangent of x. The variants return different types.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double tanx;
long double ldtanx;
tanx = tan(3490.0); // round and round we go!
ldtanx = tanl(3.490L);
printf("%f\n", tanx);
printf("%Lf\n", ldtanx);
}acosh(), acoshf(), acoshl()
Compute arc hyperbolic cosine.
#include <math.h>
double acosh(double x);
float acoshf(float x);
long double acoshl(long double x);Trig lovers can rejoice! C has arc hyperbolic cosine!
These functions return the nonnegative acosh of x, which must be greater than or equal to 1.
Returns the arc hyperbolic cosince in the range \([0,+\infty]\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("acosh 1.8 = %f\n", acosh(1.8)); // 1.192911
}asinh(), asinhf(), asinhl()
Compute arc hyperbolic sine.
#include <math.h>
double asinh(double x);
float asinhf(float x);
long double asinhl(long double x);Trig lovers can rejoice! C has arc hyperbolic sine!
These functions return the asinh of x.
Returns the arc hyperbolic sine.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("asinh 1.8 = %f\n", asinh(1.8)); // 1.350441
}atanh(), atanhf(), atanhl()
Compute the arc hyperbolic tangent.
#include <math.h>
double atanh(double x);
float atanhf(float x);
long double atanhl(long double x);These functions compute the arc hyperbolic tangent of x, which must be in the range \([-1,+1]\). Passing exactly \(-1\) or \(+1\) might result in a pole error.
Returns the arc hyperbolic tangent of x.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("atanh 0.5 = %f\n", atanh(0.5)); // 0.549306
}cosh(), coshf(), coshl()
Compute the hyperbolic cosine.
#include <math.h>
double cosh(double x);
float coshf(float x);
long double coshl(long double x);These functions predictably compute the hyperbolic cosine of x. A range error might occur if x is too large.
Returns the hyperbolic cosine of x.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("cosh 0.5 = %f\n", cosh(0.5)); // 1.127626
}sinh(), sinhf(), sinhl()
Compute the hyperbolic sine.
#include <math.h>
double sinh(double x);
float sinhf(float x);
long double sinhl(long double x);These functions predictably compute the hyperbolic sine of x. A range error might occur if x is too large.
Returns the hyperbolic sine of x.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("sinh 0.5 = %f\n", sinh(0.5)); // 0.521095
}tanh(), tanhf(), tanhl()
Compute the hyperbolic tangent.
#include <math.h>
double tanh(double x);
float tanhf(float x);
long double tanhl(long double x);These functions predictably compute the hyperbolic tangent of x.
Mercifully, this is the last trig-related man page I’m going to write.
Returns the hyperbolic tangent of x.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("tanh 0.5 = %f\n", tanh(0.5)); // 0.462117
}exp(), expf(), expl()
Compute \(e\) raised to a power.
#include <math.h>
double exp(double x);
float expf(float x);
long double expl(long double x);Compute \(e^x\) where \(e\) is Euler’s number25.
The number \(e\) is named after Leonard Euler, born April 15, 1707, who is responsible, among other things, for making this reference page longer than it needed to be.
Returns \(e^x\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("exp(1) = %f\n", exp(1)); // 2.718282
printf("exp(2) = %f\n", exp(2)); // 7.389056
}exp2(), exp2f(), exp2l()
Compute 2 to a power.
#include <math.h>
double exp2(double x);
float exp2f(float x);
long double exp2l(long double x);These functions raise 2 to a power. Very exciting, since computers are all about twos-to-powers!
These are likely to be faster than using pow() to do the same thing.
They support fractional exponents, as well.
A range error occurs if x is too large.
exp2() returns \(2^x\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("2^3 = %f\n", exp2(3)); // 2^3 = 8.000000
printf("2^8 = %f\n", exp2(8)); // 2^8 = 256.000000
printf("2^0.5 = %f\n", exp2(0.5)); // 2^0.5 = 1.414214
}expm1(), expm1f(), expm1l()
Compute \(e^x-1\).
#include <math.h>
double expm1(double x);
float expm1f(float x);
long double expm1l(long double x);This is just like exp() except—plot twist!–it computes that result minus one.
For more discussion about what \(e\) is, see the exp() man page.
If x is giant, a range error might occur.
For small values of x near zero, expm1(x) might be more accurate than computing exp(x)-1.
Returns \(e^x-1\).
frexp(), frexpf(), frexpl()
Break a number into its fraction part and exponent (as a power of 2).
#include <math.h>
double frexp(double value, int *exp);
float frexpf(float value, int *exp);
long double frexpl(long double value, int *exp);If you have a floating point number, you can break it into its fractional part and exponent part (as a power of 2).
For example, if you have the number \(1234.56\), this can be represented as a multiple of a power of 2 like so:
\(1234.56=0.6028125\times2^{11}\)
And you can use this function to get the \(0.6028125\) and \(11\) parts of that equation.
As for why, I have a simple answer: I don’t know. I can’t find a use. K&R2 and everyone else I can find just says how to use it, but not why you might want to.
The C99 Rationale document says:
The functions
frexp,ldexp, andmodfare primitives used by the remainder of the library.There was some sentiment for dropping them for the same reasons that
ecvt,fcvt, andgcvtwere dropped, but their adherents rescued them for general use. Their use is problematic: on non-binary architectures, ldexp may lose precision and frexp may be inefficient.
So there you have it. If you need it.
frexp() returns the fractional part of value in the range 0.5 (inclusive) to 1 (exclusive), or 0. And it stores the exponent power-of-2 in the variable pointed to by exp.
If you pass in zero, the return value and the variable exp points to are both zero.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double frac;
int expt;
frac = frexp(1234.56, &expt);
printf("1234.56 = %.7f x 2^%d\n", frac, expt);
}Output:
1234.56 = 0.6028125 x 2^11ilogb(), ilogbf(), ilogbl()
Return the exponent of a floating point number.
#include <math.h>
int ilogb(double x);
int ilogbf(float x);
int ilogbl(long double x);This gives you the exponent of the given number… it’s a little weird, because the exponent depends on the value of FLT_RADIX. Now, this is very often 2—but no guarantees!
It actually returns \(\log_r|x|\) where \(r\) is FLT_RADIX.
Domain or range errors might occur for invalid values of x, or for return values that are outside the range of the return type.
The exponent of the absolute value of the given number, depending on FLT_RADIX.
Specifically \(\log_r|x|\) where \(r\) is FLT_RADIX.
If you pass in 0, it’ll return FP_ILOGB0.
If you pass in infinity, it’ll return INT_MAX.
If you pass in NaN, it’ll return FP_ILOGBNAN.
The spec goes on to say that the value of FP_ILOGB0 will be either INT_MIN or -INT_MAX. And the value of FP_ILOGBNAN shall be either INT_MAX or INT_MIN, if that’s useful in any way.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%d\n", ilogb(257)); // 8
printf("%d\n", ilogb(256)); // 8
printf("%d\n", ilogb(255)); // 7
}ldexp(), ldexpf(), ldexpl()
Multiply a number by an integral power of 2.
#include <math.h>
double ldexp(double x, int exp);
float ldexpf(float x, int exp);
long double ldexpl(long double x, int exp);These functions multiply the given number x by 2 raised to the exp power.
Returns \(x\times2^{exp}\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("1 x 2^10 = %f\n", ldexp(1, 10));
printf("5.67 x 2^7 = %f\n", ldexp(5.67, 7));
}Output:
1 x 2^10 = 1024.000000
5.67 x 2^7 = 725.760000log(), logf(), logl()
Compute the natural logarithm.
#include <math.h>
double log(double x);
float logf(float x);
long double logl(long double x);Natural logarithms! And there was much rejoycing.
These compute the base-\(e\) logarithm of a number, \(\log_ex\), \(\ln x\).
In other words, for a given \(x\), solves \(x=e^y\) for \(y\).
The base-\(e\) logarithm of the given value, \(\log_ex\), \(\ln x\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
const double e = 2.718281828459045;
printf("%f\n", log(3490.2)); // 8.157714
printf("%f\n", log(e)); // 1.000000
}log10(), log10f(), log10l()
Compute the log-base-10 of a number.
#include <math.h>
double log10(double x);
float log10f(float x);
long double log10l(long double x);Just when you thought you might have to use Laws of Logarithms to compute this, here’s a function coming out of the blue to save you.
These compute the base-\(10\) logarithm of a number, \(\log_{10}x\).
In other words, for a given \(x\), solves \(x=10^y\) for \(y\).
Returns the log base-10 of x, \(\log_{10}x\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", log10(3490.2)); // 3.542850
printf("%f\n", log10(10)); // 1.000000
}log1p(), log1pf(), log1pl()
Compute the natural logarithm of a number plus 1.
#include <math.h>
double log1p(double x);
float log1pf(float x);
long double log1pl(long double x);This computes \(\log_e(1 + x)\), \(\ln(1+x)\).
This works just like calling:
log(1 + x)except it could be more accurate for small values of x.
So if your x is small magnitude, use this.
Returns \(\log_e(1 + x)\), \(\ln(1+x)\).
Compute some big and small logarithm values to see the difference between log1p() and log():
#include <stdio.h>
#include <float.h> // for LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("Big log1p() : %.*Lf\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG-1, log1pl(9));
printf("Big log() : %.*Lf\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG-1, logl(1 + 9));
printf("Small log1p(): %.*Lf\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG-1, log1pl(0.01));
printf("Small log() : %.*Lf\n", LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG-1, logl(1 + 0.01));
}Output on my system:
Big log1p() : 2.30258509299404568403
Big log() : 2.30258509299404568403
Small log1p(): 0.00995033085316808305
Small log() : 0.00995033085316809164log2(), log2f(), log2l()
Compute the base-2 logarithm of a number.
#include <math.h>
double log2(double x);
float log2f(float x);
long double log2l(long double x);Wow! Were you thinking we were done with the logarithm functions? We’re only getting started!
This one computes \(\log_2 x\). That is, computes \(y\) that satisfies \(x=2^y\).
Love me those powers of 2!
Returns the base-2 logarithm of the given value, \(\log_2 x\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", log2(3490.2)); // 11.769094
printf("%f\n", log2(256)); // 8.000000
}logb(), logbf(), logbl()
Extract the exponent of a number given FLT_RADIX.
#include <math.h>
double logb(double x);
float logbf(float x);
long double logbl(long double x);This function returns the whole number portion of the exponent of the number with radix FLT_RADIX, namely the whole number portion \(\log_r|x|\) where \(r\) is FLT_RADIX. Fractional numbers are truncated.
If the number is subnormal26, logb() treats it as if it were normalized.
If x is 0, there could be a domain error or pole error.
This function returns the whole number portion of \(\log_r|x|\) where \(r\) is FLT_RADIX.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <float.h> // For FLT_RADIX
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("FLT_RADIX = %d\n", FLT_RADIX);
printf("%f\n", logb(3490.2));
printf("%f\n", logb(256));
}Output:
FLT_RADIX = 2
11.000000
8.000000modf(), modff(), modfl()
Extract the integral and fractional parts of a number.
#include <math.h>
double modf(double value, double *iptr);
float modff(float value, float *iptr);
long double modfl(long double value, long double *iptr);If you have a floating point number, like 123.456, this function will extract the integral part (123.0) and the fractional part (0.456). It’s total coincidence that this is exactly the plot for the latest Jason Statham action spectacular.
Both the integral part and fractional parts keep the sign of the passed in value.
The integral part is stored in the address pointed to by iptr.
See the note in frexp() regarding why this is in the library.
These functions return the fractional part of the number. The integral part is stored in the address pointed to by iptr. Both the integral and fractional parts preserve the sign of the passed-in value.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
void print_parts(double x)
{
double i, f;
f = modf(x, &i);
printf("Entire number : %f\n", x);
printf("Integral part : %f\n", i);
printf("Fractional part: %f\n\n", f);
}
int main(void)
{
print_parts(123.456);
print_parts(-123.456);
}Output:
Entire number : 123.456000
Integral part : 123.000000
Fractional part: 0.456000
Entire number : -123.456000
Integral part : -123.000000
Fractional part: -0.456000scalbn(), scalbnf(), scalbnl() scalbln(), scalblnf(), scalblnl()
Efficiently compute \(x\times r^n\), where \(r\) is FLT_RADIX.
#include <math.h>
double scalbn(double x, int n);
float scalbnf(float x, int n);
long double scalbnl(long double x, int n);
double scalbln(double x, long int n);
float scalblnf(float x, long int n);
long double scalblnl(long double x, long int n);These functions efficiently compute \(x\times r^n\), where \(r\) is FLT_RADIX.
If FLT_RADIX happens to be 2 (no guarantees!), then this works like exp2().
The name of this function should have an obvious meaning to you. Clearly they all start with the prefix “scalb” which means…
…OK, I confess! I have no idea what it means. My searches are futile!
But let’s look at the suffixes:
| Suffix | Meaning |
|---|---|
n |
scalbn()—exponent n is an int |
nf |
scalbnf()—float version of scalbn() |
nl |
scalbnl()—long double version of scalbn() |
ln |
scalbln()—exponent n is a long int |
lnf |
scalblnf()—float version of scalbln() |
lnl |
scalblnl()—long double version of scalbln() |
So while I’m still in the dark about “scalb”, at least I have that part down.
A range error might occur for large values.
Returns \(x\times r^n\), where \(r\) is FLT_RADIX.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <float.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("FLT_RADIX = %d\n\n", FLT_RADIX);
printf("scalbn(3, 8) = %f\n", scalbn(2, 8));
printf("scalbnf(10.2, 20) = %f\n", scalbnf(10.2, 20));
}Output on my system:
FLT_RADIX = 2
scalbn(3, 8) = 512.000000
scalbn(10.2, 20.7) = 10695475.200000cbrt(), cbrtf(), cbrtl()
Compute the cube root.
#include <math.h>
double cbrt(double x);
float cbrtf(float x);
long double cbrtl(long double x);Computes the cube root of x, \(x^{1/3}\), \(\sqrt[3]{x}\).
Returns the cube root of x, \(x^{1/3}\), \(\sqrt[3]{x}\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("cbrt(1729.03) = %f\n", cbrt(1729.03));
}Output:
cbrt(1729.03) = 12.002384fabs(), fabsf(), fabsl()
Compute the absolute value.
#include <math.h>
double fabs(double x);
float fabsf(float x);
long double fabsl(long double x);These functions straightforwardly return the absolute value of x, that is \(|x|\).
If you’re rusty on your absolute values, all it means is that the result will be positive, even if x is negative. It’s just strips negative signs off.
Returns the absolute value of x, \(|x|\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("fabs(3490.0) = %f\n", fabs(3490.0)); // 3490.000000
printf("fabs(-3490.0) = %f\n", fabs(3490.0)); // 3490.000000
}hypot(), hypotf(), hypotl()
Compute the length of the hypotenuse of a triangle.
#include <math.h>
double hypot(double x, double y);
float hypotf(float x, float y);
long double hypotl(long double x, long double y);Pythagorean Theorem27 fans rejoice! This is the function you’ve been waiting for!
If you know the lengths of the two sides of a right triangle, x and y, you can compute the length of the hypotenuse (the longest, diagonal side) with this function.
In particular, it computes the square root of the sum of the squares of the sides: \(\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}\).
Returns the lenght of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with side lengths x and y: \(\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}\).
pow(), powf(), powl()
Compute a value raised to a power.
#include <math.h>
double pow(double x, double y);
float powf(float x, float y);
long double powl(long double x, long double y);Computes x raised to the yth power: \(x^y\).
These arguments can be fractional.
Returns x raised to the yth power: \(x^y\).
A domain error can occur if:
x is a finite negative number and y is a finite non-integerx is zero and y is zero.A domain error or pole error can occur if x is zero and y is negative.
A range error can occur for large values.
sqrt()
Calculate the square root of a number.
#include <math.h>
double sqrt(double x);
float sqrtf(float x);
long double sqrtl(long double x);Computes the square root of a number: \(\sqrt{x}\). To those of you who don’t know what a square root is, I’m not going to explain. Suffice it to say, the square root of a number delivers a value that when squared (multiplied by itself) results in the original number.
Ok, fine—I did explain it after all, but only because I wanted to show off. It’s not like I’m giving you examples or anything, such as the square root of nine is three, because when you multiply three by three you get nine, or anything like that. No examples. I hate examples!
And I suppose you wanted some actual practical information here as well. You can see the usual trio of functions here—they all compute square root, but they take different types as arguments. Pretty straightforward, really.
A domain error occurs if x is negative.
Returns (and I know this must be something of a surprise to you) the square root of x: \(\sqrt{x}\).
// example usage of sqrt()
float something = 10;
double x1 = 8.2, y1 = -5.4;
double x2 = 3.8, y2 = 34.9;
double dx, dy;
printf("square root of 10 is %.2f\n", sqrtf(something));
dx = x2 - x1;
dy = y2 - y1;
printf("distance between points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2): %.2f\n",
sqrt(dx*dx + dy*dy));And the output is:
square root of 10 is 3.16
distance between points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2): 40.54erf(), erff(), erfl()
Compute the error function of the given value.
#include <math.h>
double erfc(double x);
float erfcf(float x);
long double erfcl(long double x);These functions compute the error function28 of a value.
Returns the error function of x:
\({\displaystyle \frac{2}{\sqrt\pi} \int_0^x e^{-t^2}\,dt}\)
Output:
-2.0: -0.995322
-1.5: -0.966105
-1.0: -0.842701
-0.5: -0.520500
0.0: 0.000000
0.5: 0.520500
1.0: 0.842701
1.5: 0.966105
2.0: 0.995322erfc(), erfcf(), erfcl()
Compute the complementary error function of a value.
#include <math.h>
double erfc(double x);
float erfcf(float x);
long double erfcl(long double x);These functions compute the complementary error function29 of a value.
This is the same as:
1 - erf(x)A range error can occur if x is too large.
Returns 1 - erf(x), namely:
\({\displaystyle \frac{2}{\sqrt\pi} \int_x^{\infty} e^{-t^2}\,dt}\)
Output:
-2.0: 1.995322
-1.5: 1.966105
-1.0: 1.842701
-0.5: 1.520500
0.0: 1.000000
0.5: 0.479500
1.0: 0.157299
1.5: 0.033895
2.0: 0.004678lgamma(), lgammaf(), lgammal()
Compute the natural logarithm of the absolute value of \(\Gamma(x)\).
#include <math.h>
double lgamma(double x);
float lgammaf(float x);
long double lgammal(long double x);Compute the natural log of the absolute value of gamma30 x, \(\log_e|\Gamma(x)|\).
A range error can occur if x is too large.
A pole error can occur is x is non-positive.
Returns \(\log_e|\Gamma(x)|\).
Output:
0.5: 0.572365
1.0: 0.000000
1.5: -0.120782
2.0: 0.000000
2.5: 0.284683
3.0: 0.693147
3.5: 1.200974
4.0: 1.791759tgamma(), tgammaf(), tgammal()
Compute the gamma function, \(\Gamma(x)\).
#include <math.h>
double tgamma(double x);
float tgammaf(float x);
long double tgammal(long double x);Computes the gamma function31 of x, \(\Gamma(x)\).
A domain or pole error might occur if x is non-positive.
A range error might occur if x is too large or too small.
Returns the gamma function of x, \(\Gamma(x)\).
Output:
0.5: 1.772454
1.0: 1.000000
1.5: 0.886227
2.0: 1.000000
2.5: 1.329340
3.0: 2.000000
3.5: 3.323351
4.0: 6.000000ceil(), ceilf(), ceill()
Ceiling—return the next whole number not smaller than the given number.
#include <math.h>
double ceil(double x);
float ceilf(float x);
long double ceill(long double x);Returns the ceiling of the x: \(\lceil{x}\rceil\).
This is the next whole number not smaller than x.
Beware this minor dragon: it’s not just “rounding up”. Well, it is for positive numbers, but negative numbers effectively round toward zero. (Because the ceiling function is headed for the next largest whole number and \(-4\) is larger than \(-5\).)
Returns the next largest whole number larger than x.
Notice for the negative numbers it heads toward zero, i.e. toward the next largest whole number—just like the positives head toward the next largest whole number.
printf("%f\n", ceil(4.0)); // 4.000000
printf("%f\n", ceil(4.1)); // 5.000000
printf("%f\n", ceil(-2.0)); // -2.000000
printf("%f\n", ceil(-2.1)); // -2.000000
printf("%f\n", ceil(-3.1)); // -3.000000floor(), floorf(), floorl()
Compute the largest whole number not larger than the given value.
#include <math.h>
double floor(double x);
float floorf(float x);
long double floorl(long double x);Returns the floor of the value: \(\lfloor{x}\rfloor\). This is the opposite of ceil().
This is the largest whole number that is not greater than x.
For positive numbers, this is like rounding down: 4.5 becomes 4.0.
For negative numbers, it’s like rounding up: -3.6 becomes -4.0.
In both cases, those results are the largest whole number not bigger than the given number.
Returns the largest whole number not greater than x: \(\lfloor{x}\rfloor\).
Note how the negative numbers effectively round away from zero, unlike the positives.
printf("%f\n", floor(4.0)); // 4.000000
printf("%f\n", floor(4.1)); // 4.000000
printf("%f\n", floor(-2.0)); // -2.000000
printf("%f\n", floor(-2.1)); // -3.000000
printf("%f\n", floor(-3.1)); // -4.000000nearbyint(), nearbyintf(), nearbyintl()
Rounds a value in the current rounding direction.
#include <math.h>
double nearbyint(double x);
float nearbyintf(float x);
long double nearbyintl(long double x);This function rounds x to the nearest integer in the current rounding direction.
The rounding direction can be set with fesetround() in <fenv.h>.
nearbyint() won’t raise the “inexact” floating point exception.
Returns x rounded in the current rounding direction.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON // If supported
fesetround(FE_TONEAREST); // round to nearest
printf("%f\n", nearbyint(3.14)); // 3.000000
printf("%f\n", nearbyint(3.74)); // 4.000000
fesetround(FE_TOWARDZERO); // round toward zero
printf("%f\n", nearbyint(1.99)); // 1.000000
printf("%f\n", nearbyint(-1.99)); // -1.000000
}rint(), lrint(), round(), fesetround(), fegetround()
rint(), rintf(), rintl()
Rounds a value in the current rounding direction.
#include <math.h>
double rint(double x);
float rintf(float x);
long double rintl(long double x);This works just like nearbyint() except that is can raise the “inexact” floating point exception.
Returns x rounded in the current rounding direction.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
fesetround(FE_TONEAREST);
printf("%f\n", rint(3.14)); // 3.000000
printf("%f\n", rint(3.74)); // 4.000000
fesetround(FE_TOWARDZERO);
printf("%f\n", rint(1.99)); // 1.000000
printf("%f\n", rint(-1.99)); // -1.000000
}nearbyint(), lrint(), round(), fesetround(), fegetround()
lrint(), lrintf(), lrintl(), llrint(), llrintf(), llrintl()
Returns x rounded in the current rounding direction as an integer.
#include <math.h>
long int lrint(double x);
long int lrintf(float x);
long int lrintl(long double x);
long long int llrint(double x);
long long int llrintf(float x);
long long int llrintl(long double x);Round a floating point number in the current rounding direction, but this time return an integer intead of a float. You know, just to mix it up.
These come in two variants:
lrint()—returns long intllrint()—returns long long intIf the result doesn’t fit in the return type, a domain or range error might occur.
The value of x rounded to an integer in the current rounding direction.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#include <fenv.h>
int main(void)
{
#pragma STDC FENV_ACCESS ON
fesetround(FE_TONEAREST);
printf("%ld\n", lrint(3.14)); // 3
printf("%ld\n", lrint(3.74)); // 4
fesetround(FE_TOWARDZERO);
printf("%ld\n", lrint(1.99)); // 1
printf("%ld\n", lrint(-1.99)); // -1
}nearbyint(), rint(), round(), fesetround(), fegetround()
round(), roundf(), roundl()
Round a number in the good old-fashioned way.
#include <math.h>
double round(double x);
float roundf(float x);
long double roundl(long double x);Rounds a number to the nearest whole value.
In case of halfsies, rounds away from zero (i.e. “round up” in magnitude).
The current rounding direction’s Jedi mind tricks don’t work on this function.
The rounded value of x.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", round(3.14)); // 3.000000
printf("%f\n", round(3.5)); // 4.000000
printf("%f\n", round(-1.5)); // -2.000000
printf("%f\n", round(-1.14)); // -1.000000
}lround(), nearbyint(), rint(), lrint(), trunc()
lround(), lroundf(), lroundl() llround(), llroundf(), llroundl()
Round a number in the good old-fashioned way, returning an integer.
#include <math.h>
long int lround(double x);
long int lroundf(float x);
long int lroundl(long double x);
long long int llround(double x);
long long int llroundf(float x);
long long int llroundl(long double x);These are just like round() except they return integers.
Halfway values round away from zero, e.g. \(1.5\) rounds to \(2\) and \(-1.5\) rounds to \(-2\).
The functions are grouped by return type:
lround()—returns a long intllround()—returns a long long intIf the rounded value can’t fit in the return type, a domain or range error can occur.
Returns the rounded value of x as an integer.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%ld\n", lround(3.14)); // 3
printf("%ld\n", lround(3.5)); // 4
printf("%ld\n", lround(-1.5)); // -2
printf("%ld\n", lround(-1.14)); // -1
}round(), nearbyint(), rint(), lrint(), trunc()
trunc(), truncf(), truncl()
Truncate the fractional part off a floating point value.
#include <math.h>
double trunc(double x);
float truncf(float x);
long double truncl(long double x);These functions just drop the fractional part of a floating point number. Boom.
In other words, they always round toward zero.
Returns the truncated floating point number.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", trunc(3.14)); // 3.000000
printf("%f\n", trunc(3.8)); // 3.000000
printf("%f\n", trunc(-1.5)); // -1.000000
printf("%f\n", trunc(-1.14)); // -1.000000
}round(), lround(), nearbyint(), rint(), lrint()
fmod(), fmodf(), fmodl()
Compute the floating point remainder.
#include <math.h>
double fmod(double x, double y);
float fmodf(float x, float y);
long double fmodl(long double x, long double y);Returns the remainder of \(\frac{x}{y}\). The result will have the same sign as x.
Under the hood, the computation performed is:
x - trunc(x / y) * yBut it might be easier just to think of the remainder.
Returns the remainder of \(\frac{x}{y}\) with the same sign as x.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", fmod(-9.2, 5.1)); // -4.100000
printf("%f\n", fmod(9.2, 5.1)); // 4.100000
}remainder(), remainderf(), remainderl()
Compute the remainder IEC 60559-style.
#include <math.h>
double remainder(double x, double y);
float remainderf(float x, float y);
long double remainderl(long double x, long double y);This is similar to fmod(), but not quite the same. fmod() is probably what you’re after if you’re expecting remainders to wrap around like an odometer.
The C spec quotes IEC 60559 on how this works:
When \(y\neq0\), the remainder \(r=x\) REM \(y\) is defined regardless of the rounding mode by the mathematical relation \(r=x-ny\), where \(n\) is the integer nearest the exact value of \(x/y\); whenever \(|n-x/y|=1/2\), then \(n\) is even. If \(r=0\), its sign shall be that of \(x\).
Hope that clears it up!
OK, maybe not. Here’s the upshot:
You know how if you fmod() something by, say 2.0 you get a result that is somewhere between 0.0 and 2.0? And how if you just increase the number that you’re modding by 2.0, you can see the result climb up to 2.0 and then wrap around to 0.0 like your car’s odometer?
remainder() works just like that, except if y is 2.0, it wraps from -1.0 to 1.0 instead of from 0.0 to 2.0.
In other words, the range of the function runs from -y/2 to y/2. Contrasted to fmod() that runs from 0.0 to y, remainder()’s output is just shifted down half a y.
And zero-remainder-anything is 0.
Except if y is zero, the function might return zero or a domain error might occur.
The IEC 60559 result of x-remainder-y.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", remainder(3.7, 4)); // -0.300000
printf("%f\n", remainder(4.3, 4)); // 0.300000
}remquo(), remquof(), remquol()
Compute the remainder and (some of the) quotient.
#include <math.h>
double remquo(double x, double y, int *quo);
float remquof(float x, float y, int *quo);
long double remquol(long double x, long double y, int *quo);This is a funky little thing.
First of all, the return value is the remainder, the same as the remainder() function, so check that out.
And the quotient comes back in the quo pointer.
Or at least some of it does. You’ll get at least 3 bits worth of the quotient.
But why?
So a couple things.
One is that the quotient of some very large floating point numbers can easily be far too gigantic to fit in even a long long unsigned int. So some of it might very well need to be lopped off, anyway.
But at 3 bits? How’s that even useful? That only gets you from 0 to 7!
The C99 Rationale document states:
The
remquofunctions are intended for implementing argument reductions which can exploit a few low-order bits of the quotient. Note that \(x\) may be so large in magnitude relative to \(y\) that an exact representation of the quotient is not practical.
So… implementing argument reductions… which can exploit a few low-order bits… Ooookay.
CPPReference has this to say32 on the matter, which is spoken so well, I will quote wholesale:
This function is useful when implementing periodic functions with the period exactly representable as a floating-point value: when calculating \(\sin(πx)\) for a very large
x, callingsindirectly may result in a large error, but if the function argument is first reduced withremquo, the low-order bits of the quotient may be used to determine the sign and the octant of the result within the period, while the remainder may be used to calculate the value with high precision.
And there you have it. If you have another example that works for you… congratulations! :)
Returns the same as remainder: The IEC 60559 result of x-remainder-y.
In addition, at least the lowest 3 bits of the quotient will be stored in quo with the same sign as x/y.
There’s a great cos() example at CPPReference33 that covers a genuine use case.
But instead of stealing it, I’ll just post a simple example here and you can visit their site for a real one.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
int quo;
double rem;
rem = remquo(12.75, 2.25, &quo);
printf("%d remainder %f\n", quo, rem); // 6 remainder -0.750000
}copysign(), copysignf(), copysignl()
Copy the sign of one value into another.
#include <math.h>
double copysign(double x, double y);
float copysignf(float x, float y);
long double copysignl(long double x, long double y);These functions return a number that has the magnitude of x and the sign of y. You can use them to coerce the sign to that of another value.
Neither x nor y are modified, of course. The return value holds the result.
Returns a value with the magnitude of x and the sign of y.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
double x = 34.9;
double y = -999.9;
double z = 123.4;
printf("%f\n", copysign(x, y)); // -34.900000
printf("%f\n", copysign(x, z)); // 34.900000
}nan(), nanf(), nanl()
Return NAN.
#include <math.h>
double nan(const char *tagp);
float nanf(const char *tagp);
long double nanl(const char *tagp);These functions return a quiet NaN34. It is produced as if calling strtod() with "NAN" (or a variant thereof) as an argument.
tagp points to a string which could be several things, including empty. The contents of the string determine which variant of NaN might get returned depending on the implementation.
Which version of NaN? Did you even know it was possible to get this far into the weeds with something that wasn’t a number?
Case 1 in which you pass in an empty string, in which case these are the same:
nan("");
strtod("NAN()", NULL);Case 2 in which the string contains only digits 0-9, letters a-z, letters A-Z, and/or underscore:
nan("goats");
strtod("NAN(goats)", NULL);And Case 3, in which the string contains anything else and is ignored:
nan("!");
strtod("NAN", NULL);As for what strtod() does with those values in parens, see the [strtod()] reference page. Spoiler: it’s implementation-defined.
Returns the requested quiet NaN, or 0 if such things aren’t supported by your system.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", nan("")); // nan
printf("%f\n", nan("goats")); // nan
printf("%f\n", nan("!")); // nan
}nextafter(), nextafterf(), nextafterl()
Get the next (or previous) representable floating point value.
#include <math.h>
double nextafter(double x, double y);
float nextafterf(float x, float y);
long double nextafterl(long double x, long double y);As you probably know, floating point numbers can’t represent every possible real number. There are limits.
And, as such, there exists a “next” and “previous” number after or before any floating point number.
These functions return the next (or previous) representable number. That is, no floating point numbers exist between the given number and the next one.
The way it figures it out is it works from x in the direction of y, answering the question of “what is the next representable number from x as we head toward y.
Returns the next representable floating point value from x in the direction of y.
If x equals y, returns y. And also x, I suppose.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%.*f\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, nextafter(0.5, 1.0));
printf("%.*f\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, nextafter(0.349, 0.0));
}Output on my system:
0.50000000000000011
0.34899999999999992nexttoward(), nexttowardf(), nexttowardl()
Get the next (or previous) representable floating point value.
include <math.h>
double nexttoward(double x, long double y);
float nexttowardf(float x, long double y);
long double nexttowardl(long double x, long double y);These functions are the same as nextafter() except the second parameter is always long double.
Returns the same as nextafter() except if x equals y, returns y cast to the function’s return type.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <float.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%.*f\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, nexttoward(0.5, 1.0));
printf("%.*f\n", DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, nexttoward(0.349, 0.0));
}Output on my system:
0.50000000000000011
0.34899999999999992fdim(), fdimf(), fdiml()
Return the positive difference between two numbers clamped at 0.
#include <math.h>
double fdim(double x, double y);
float fdimf(float x, float y);
long double fdiml(long double x, long double y);The positive difference between x and y is the difference… except if the difference is less than 0, it’s clamped to 0.
These functions might throw a range error.
Returns the difference of x-y if the difference is greater than 0. Otherwise it returns 0.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", fdim(10.0, 3.0)); // 7.000000
printf("%f\n", fdim(3.0, 10.0)); // 0.000000, clamped
}fmax(), fmaxf(), fmaxl(), fmin(), fminf(), fminl()
Return the maximum or minimum of two numbers.
#include <math.h>
double fmax(double x, double y);
float fmaxf(float x, float y);
long double fmaxl(long double x, long double y);
double fmin(double x, double y);
float fminf(float x, float y);
long double fminl(long double x, long double y);Straightforwardly, these functions return the minimum or maximum of two given numbers.
If one of the numbers is NaN, the functions return the non-NaN number. If both arguments are NaN, the functions return NaN.
Returns the minimum or maximum values, with NaN handled as mentioned above.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%f\n", fmin(10.0, 3.0)); // 3.000000
printf("%f\n", fmax(3.0, 10.0)); // 10.000000
}fma(), fmaf(), fmal()
Floating (AKA “Fast”) multiply and add.
#include <math.h>
double fma(double x, double y, double z);
float fmaf(float x, float y, float z);
long double fmal(long double x, long double y, long double z);This performs the operation \((x\times{y})+z\), but does so in a nifty way. It does the computation as if it had infinite precision, and then rounds the final result to the final data type according to the current rounding mode.
Contrast to if you’d do the math yourself, where it would have rounded each step of the way, potentially.
Also some architectures have a CPU instruction to do exactly this calculation, so it can do it super quick. (If it doesn’t, it’s considerably slower.)
You can tell if your CPU supports the fast version by checking that the macro FP_FAST_FMA is set to 1. (The float and long variants of fma() can be tested with FP_FAST_FMAF and FP_FAST_FMAL, respectively.)
These functions might cause a range error to occur.
Returns (x * y) + z.
isgreater(), isgreaterequal(), isless(), islessequal()
Floating point comparison macros.
#include <math.h>
int isgreater(any_floating_type x, any_floating_type y);
int isgreaterequal(any_floating_type x, any_floating_type y);
int isless(any_floating_type x, any_floating_type y);
int islessequal(any_floating_type x, any_floating_type y);These macros compare floating point numbers. Being macros, we can pass in any floating point type.
You might think you can already do that with just regular comparison operators—and you’d be right!
One one exception: the comparison operators raise the “invalid” floating exception if one or more of the operands is NaN. These macros do not.
Note that you must only pass floating point types into these functions. Passing an integer or any other type is undefined behavior.
isgreater() returns the result of x > y.
isgreaterequal() returns the result of x >= y.
isless() returns the result of x < y.
islessequal() returns the result of x <= y.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%d\n", isgreater(10.0, 3.0)); // 1
printf("%d\n", isgreaterequal(10.0, 10.0)); // 1
printf("%d\n", isless(10.0, 3.0)); // 0
printf("%d\n", islessequal(10.0, 3.0)); // 0
}islessgreater(), isunordered()
islessgreater()Test if a floating point number is less than or greater than another.
#include <math.h>
int islessgreater(any_floating_type x, any_floating_type y);This macro is similar to isgreater() and all those, except it made the section name too long if I included it up there. So it gets its own spot.
This returns true if \(x < y\) or \(x > y\).
Even though it’s a macro, we can rest assured that x and y are only evaluated once.
And even if x or y are NaN, this will not throw an “invalid” exception, unlike the normal comparison operators.
If you pass in a non-floating type, the behavior is undefined.
Returns (x < y) || (x > y).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%d\n", islessgreater(10.0, 3.0)); // 1
printf("%d\n", islessgreater(10.0, 30.0)); // 1
printf("%d\n", islessgreater(10.0, 10.0)); // 0
}isgreater(), isgreaterequal(), isless(), islessequal(), isunordered()
isunordered()Macro returns true if either floating point argument is NaN.
#include <math.h>
int isunordered(any_floating_type x, any_floating_type y);The spec writes:
The isunordered macro determines whether its arguments are unordered.
See? Told you C was easy!
It does also elaborate that the arguments are unordered if one or both of them are NaN.
This macro returns true if one or both of the arguments are NaN.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("%d\n", isunordered(1.0, 2.0)); // 0
printf("%d\n", isunordered(1.0, sqrt(-1))); // 1
printf("%d\n", isunordered(NAN, 30.0)); // 1
printf("%d\n", isunordered(NAN, NAN)); // 1
}isgreater(), isgreaterequal(), isless(), islessequal(), islessgreater()
<setjmp.h> Non-local GotoThese functions enable you to rewind the call stack to an earlier point, with a bunch of gotchas. It is rarely used.
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
longjmp() |
Return to the previously-placed bookmark |
setjmp() |
Bookmark this place to return to later |
There’s also a new opaque type, jmp_buf, that holds all the information needed to pull off this magic trick.
If you want your automatic local variables to be correct after a call to longjmp(). declare them as volatile where you called setjmp().
setjmp()Save this location as one to return to later
#include <setjmp.h>
int setjmp(jmp_buf env);This is how you save your position so you can longjmp() back it, later. Think of it as setting up a warp destination for later use.
Basically, you call this, giving it an env it can fill in with all the information it needs to come back here later. This env is one you’ll pass to longjmp() later when you want to teleport back here.
And the really funky part is this can return two different ways:
It can return 0 from the call where you set up the jump destination.
If can return non-zero when you actually warp back here as the result of a call to longjmp().
What you can do is check the return value to see which case has occurred.
You’re only allowed to call setjmp() in a limited number of circumstances.
As a standalone expression:
setjmp(env);You can also cast it to (void) if you really wanted to do such a thing.
As the complete controlling expression in an if or switch.
if (setjmp(env)) { ... }
switch (setjmp(env)) { ... }But not this as it’s not the complete controlling expression in this case:
if (x == 2 && setjmp()) { ... } // Undefined behaviorThe same as (2), above, except with a comparison to an integer constant:
if (setjmp(env) == 0) { ... }
if (setjmp(env) > 2) { ... }As the operand to the not (!) operator:
if (!setjmp(env)) { ... }Anything else is (you guessed it) undefined behavior!
This can be a macro or a function, but you’ll treat it the same way in any case.
This one is funky. It returns one of two things:
Returns 0 if this was the call to setjmp() to set it up.
Returns non-zero if being here was the result of a call to longjmp(). (Namely, it returns the value passed into the longjmp() function.)
Here’s a function that calls setjmp() to set things up (where it returns 0), then calls a couple levels deep into functions, and finally short-circuits the return path by longjmp()ing back to the place where setjmp() was called, earlier. This time, it passes 3490 as a value, which setjmp() returns.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <setjmp.h>
jmp_buf env;
void depth2(void)
{
printf("Entering depth 2\n");
longjmp(env, 3490); // Jump back to setjmp()!!
printf("Leaving depth 2\n"); // This won't happen
}
void depth1(void)
{
printf("Entering depth 1\n");
depth2();
printf("Leaving depth 1\n"); // This won't happen
}
int main(void)
{
switch (setjmp(env)) {
case 0:
printf("Calling into functions, setjmp() returned 0\n");
depth1();
printf("Returned from functions\n"); // This won't happen
break;
case 3490:
printf("Bailed back to main, setjmp() returned 3490\n");
break;
}
}When run, this outputs:
Calling into functions, setjmp() returned 0
Entering depth 1
Entering depth 2
Bailed back to main, setjmp() returned 3490Notice that the second printf() in case 0 didn’t run; it got jumped over by longjmp()!
longjmp()Return to the previous setjmp() location
#include <setjmp.h>
_Noreturn void longjmp(jmp_buf env, int val);This returns to a previous call to setjmp() back in the call history. setjmp() will return the val passed into longjmp().
The env passed to setjmp() should be the same one you pass into longjmp().
There are a bunch of potential issues with doing this, so you’ll want to be careful that you avoid undefined behavior by not doing the following:
Don’t call longjmp() if the corresponding setjmp() was in a different thread.
Don’t call longjmp() if you didn’t call setjmp() first.
Don’t call longjmp() if the function that called setjmp() has completed.
Don’t call longjmp() if the call to setjmp() had a variable length array (VLA) in scope and the scope has ended.
Don’t call longjmp() if there are any VLAs in any active scopes between the setjmp() and the longjmp(). A good rule of thumb here is to not mix VLAs and longjmp().
Though longjmp() attempts to restore the machine to the state at the setjmp(), including local variables, there are some things that aren’t brought back to life:
This one is also funky in that it is one of the few functions in C that never returns!
Here’s a function that calls setjmp() to set things up (where it returns 0), then calls a couple levels deep into functions, and finally short-circuits the return path by longjmp()ing back to the place where setjmp() was called, earlier. This time, it passes 3490 as a value, which setjmp() returns.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <setjmp.h>
jmp_buf env;
void depth2(void)
{
printf("Entering depth 2\n");
longjmp(env, 3490); // Jump back to setjmp()!!
printf("Leaving depth 2\n"); // This won't happen
}
void depth1(void)
{
printf("Entering depth 1\n");
depth2();
printf("Leaving depth 1\n"); // This won't happen
}
int main(void)
{
switch (setjmp(env)) {
case 0:
printf("Calling into functions, setjmp() returned 0\n");
depth1();
printf("Returned from functions\n"); // This won't happen
break;
case 3490:
printf("Bailed back to main, setjmp() returned 3490\n");
break;
}
}When run, this outputs:
Calling into functions, setjmp() returned 0
Entering depth 1
Entering depth 2
Bailed back to main, setjmp() returned 3490Notice that the second printf() in case 0 didn’t run; it got jumped over by longjmp()!
<signal.h> signal handling| Function | Description |
|---|---|
signal() |
Set a signal handler for a given signal |
raise() |
Cause a signal to be raised |
Handle signals in a portable way, kind of!
These signals get raised for a variety of reasons such as CTRL-C being hit, requests to terminate for external programs, memory access violations, and so on.
Your OS likely defines a plethora of other signals, as well.
This system is pretty limited, as seen below. If you’re on Unix, it’s almost certain your OS has far superior signal handling capabilities than the C standard library. Check out sigaction35.
signal()Set a signal handler for a given signal
#include <signal.h>
void (*signal(int sig, void (*func)(int)))(int);How’s that for a function declaration?
Let’s ignore it for a moment and just talk about what this function does.
When a signal is raised, something is going to happen. This function lets you decide to do one of these things when the signal is raised:
The signal() function takes two arguments. The first, sig, is the name of the signal to handle.
| Signal | Description |
|---|---|
SIGABRT |
Raised when abort() is called |
SIGFPE |
Floating-point arithmetic exception |
SIGILL |
CPU tried to execute an illegal instruction |
SIGINT |
Interrupt signal, as if CTRL-C were pressed |
SIGSEGV |
Segmention Violation: attempted to access restricted memory |
SIGTERM |
Termination request36 |
So that’s the first bit when you call signal()—tell it the signal in question:
signal(SIGINT, ...But what’s that func parameter?
For spoilers, it’s a pointer to a function that takes an int argument and returns void. We can use this to call an arbitrary function when the signal occurs.
Before we do that, though, let’s look at the easy ones: telling the system to ignore the signal or perform the default action (which it does by default if you never call signal()).
You can set func to one of two special values to make this happen:
func |
Description |
|---|---|
SIG_DFL |
Perform the default action on this signal |
SIG_IGN |
Ignore this signal |
For example:
signal(SIGTERM, SIG_DFL); // Default action on SIGTERM
signal(SIGINT, SIG_IGN); // Ignore SIGINTBut what if you want to have your own handler do something instead of the default or ignoring it? You can pass in your own function to be called. That’s what the crazy function signature is partially about. It’s saying that the argument can be a pointer to a function that takes an int argument and returns void.
So if you wanted to call your handler, you could have code like this:
int handler(int sig)
{
// Handle the signal
}
int main(void)
{
signal(SIGINT, handler);What can you do in the signal handler? Not much.
If the signal is due to abort() or raise(), the handler can’t call raise().
If the signal is not due to abort() or raise(), you’re only allowed to call these functions from the standard library (though the spec doesn’t prohibit calling other non-library functions):
abort()_Exit()quick_exit()<stdatomic.h> when the atomic arguments are lock-freesignal() with a first argument equivalent to the argument that was passed into the handlerIn addition, if the signal was not due to abort() or raise(), the handler can’t access any object with static or thread-storage duration unless it’s lock-free.
An exception is that you can assign to (but not read from!) a variable of type volatile sig_atomic_t.
It’s up to the implementation, but the signal handler might be reset to SIG_DFL just before the handler is called.
It’s undefined behavior to call signal() in a multithreaded program.
It’s undefined behavior to return from the handler for SIGFPE, SIGILL, SIGSEGV, or any implementation-defined value. You must exit.
The implementation might or might not prevent other signals from arising while in the signal handler.
On success, signal() returns a pointer to the previous signal handler set by a call to signal() for that particular signal number. If you haven’t called it set, returns SIG_DFL.
On failure, SIG_ERR is returned and errno is set to a positive value.
Here’s a program that causes SIGINT to be ignored. Commonly you trigger this signal by hitting CTRL-C.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <signal.h>
int main(void)
{
signal(SIGINT, SIG_IGN);
printf("You can't hit CTRL-C to exit this program. Try it!\n\n");
printf("Press return to exit, instead.");
fflush(stdout);
getchar();
}Output:
You can't hit CTRL-C to exit this program. Try it!
Press return to exit, instead.^C^C^C^C^C^C^C^C^C^C^CThis program sets the signal handler, then raises the signal. The signal handler fires.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <signal.h>
void handler(int sig)
{
// Undefined behavior to call printf() if this handler was not
// as the result of a raise(), i.e. if you hit CTRL-C.
printf("Got signal %d!\n", sig);
// Common to reset the handler just in case the implementation set
// it to SIG_DFL when the signal occurred.
signal(sig, handler);
}
int main(void)
{
signal(SIGINT, handler);
raise(SIGINT);
raise(SIGINT);
raise(SIGINT);
}Output:
Got signal 2!
Got signal 2!
Got signal 2!This example catches SIGINT but then sets a flag to 1. Then the main loop sees the flag and exits.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <signal.h>
volatile sig_atomic_t x;
void handler(int sig)
{
x = 1;
}
int main(void)
{
signal(SIGINT, handler);
printf("Hit CTRL-C to exit\n");
while (x != 1);
}raise()Cause a signal to be raised
#include <signal.h>
int raise(int sig);Causes the signal handler for the signal sig to be called. If the handler is SIG_DFL or SIG_IGN, then the default action or no action happens.
raise() returns after the signal handler has finished running.
Interestingly, if you cause a signal to happen with raise(), you can call library functions from within the signal handler without causing undefined behavior. I’m not sure how this fact is practically useful, though.
Returns 0 on success. Nonzero otherwise.
This program sets the signal handler, then raises the signal. The signal handler fires.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <signal.h>
void handler(int sig)
{
// Undefined behavior to call printf() if this handler was not
// as the result of a raise(), i.e. if you hit CTRL-C.
printf("Got signal %d!\n", sig);
// Common to reset the handler just in case the implementation set
// it to SIG_DFL when the signal occurred.
signal(sig, handler);
}
int main(void)
{
signal(SIGINT, handler);
raise(SIGINT);
raise(SIGINT);
raise(SIGINT);
}Output:
Got signal 2!
Got signal 2!
Got signal 2!<stdalign.h> Macros for AlignmentIf you’re coding up something low-level like a memory allocator that interfaces with your OS, you might need this header file. But most C devs go their careers without using it.
Alignment37 is all about multiples of addresses on which objects can be stored. Can you store this at any address? Or must it be a starting address that’s divisible by 2? Or 8? Or 16?
| Name | Description |
|---|---|
alignas() |
Specify alignment, expands to _Alignas |
alignof() |
Get alignment, expands to _Alignof |
These two additional macros are defined to be 1:
__alignas_is_defined
__alignof_is_definedQuick note: alignments greater than that of max_align_t are known as overalignments and are implementation-defined.
alignas() _Alignas()
Force a variable to have a certain alignment
#include <stdalign.h>
alignas(type-name)
alignas(constant-expression)_Alignas(type-name)
_Alignas(constant-expression)Use this alignment specifier to force the alignment of particular variables. For instance, we can declare c to be char, but aligned as if it were an int:
char alignas(int) c;You can put a constant integer expression in there, as well. The compiler will probably impose limits on what these values can be. Small powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, and 16) are generally safe bets.
char alignas(8) c; // align on 8-byte boundariesFor convenience, you can also specify 0 if you want the default alignment (as if you hadn’t said alignas() at all):
char alignas(0) c; // use default alignment for this type#include <stdalign.h>
#include <stdio.h> // for printf()
#include <stddef.h> // for max_align_t
int main(void)
{
int i, j;
char alignas(max_align_t) a, b;
char alignas(int) c, d;
char e, f;
printf("i: %p\n", (void *)&i);
printf("j: %p\n\n", (void *)&j);
printf("a: %p\n", (void *)&a);
printf("b: %p\n\n", (void *)&b);
printf("c: %p\n", (void *)&c);
printf("d: %p\n\n", (void *)&d);
printf("e: %p\n", (void *)&e);
printf("f: %p\n", (void *)&f);
}Output on my system follows. Notice the difference between the pairs of values.
i and j, both ints, are aligned on 4-byte boundaries.a and b have been forced to the boundary of the type max_align_t, which is every 16 bytes on my system.c and d have been forced to the same alignment as int, which is 4 bytes, just like with i and j.e and f do not have an alignment specified, so they were stored with their default alignment of 1 byte.i: 0x7ffee7dfb4cc <-- difference of 4 bytes
j: 0x7ffee7dfb4c8
a: 0x7ffee7dfb4c0 <-- difference of 16 bytes
b: 0x7ffee7dfb4b0
c: 0x7ffee7dfb4ac <-- difference of 4 bytes
d: 0x7ffee7dfb4a8
e: 0x7ffee7dfb4a7 <-- difference of 1 byte
f: 0x7ffee7dfb4a6alignof() _Alignof()
Get the alignment of a type
#include <stdalign.h>
alignof(type-name)_Alignof(type-name)This evaluates to a value of type size_t that gives the alignment of a particular type on your system.
Returns the alignment value, i.e. the address of the beginning of the given type of object must begin on an address boundary divisible by this number.
Print out the alignments of a variety of different types.
#include <stdalign.h>
#include <stdio.h> // for printf()
#include <stddef.h> // for max_align_t
struct t {
int a;
char b;
float c;
};
int main(void)
{
printf("char : %zu\n", alignof(char));
printf("short : %zu\n", alignof(short));
printf("int : %zu\n", alignof(int));
printf("long : %zu\n", alignof(long));
printf("long long : %zu\n", alignof(long long));
printf("double : %zu\n", alignof(double));
printf("long double: %zu\n", alignof(long double));
printf("struct t : %zu\n", alignof(struct t));
printf("max_align_t: %zu\n", alignof(max_align_t));
}Output on my system:
char : 1
short : 2
int : 4
long : 8
long long : 8
double : 8
long double: 16
struct t : 16
max_align_t: 16<stdarg.h> Variable Arguments| Macro | Description |
|---|---|
va_arg() |
Get the next variable argument |
va_copy() |
Copy a va_list and the work done so far |
va_end() |
Signify we’re done processing variable arguments |
va_start() |
Initialize a va_list to start variable argument processing |
This header file is what allows you to write functions that take a variable number of arguments.
In addition to the macros, you get a new type that helps C keep track of where it is in the variable-number-of-arguments-processing: va_list. This type is opaque, and you’ll be passing it around to the various macros to help get at the arguments.
Note that every variadic function requires at least one non-variable parameter. You need this to kick off processing with va_start().
va_arg()Get the next variable argument
#include <stdarg.h>
type va_arg(va_list ap, type);If you have a variable argument list you’ve initialized with va_start(), pass it to this one along with the type of argument you’re trying to get, e.g.
int x = va_arg(args, int);
float y = va_arg(args, float);Evaluates to the value and type of the next variable argument.
Here’s a demo that adds together an arbitrary number of integers. The first argument is the number of integers to add together. We’ll make use of that to figure out how many times we have to call va_arg().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
int add(int count, ...)
{
int total = 0;
va_list va;
va_start(va, count); // Start with arguments after "count"
for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
int n = va_arg(va, int); // Get the next int
total += n;
}
va_end(va); // All done
return total;
}
int main(void)
{
printf("%d\n", add(4, 6, 2, -4, 17)); // 6 + 2 - 4 + 17 = 21
printf("%d\n", add(2, 22, 44)); // 22 + 44 = 66
}va_copy()Copy a va_list and the work done so far
#include <stdarg.h>
void va_copy(va_list dest, va_list src);The main intended use of this is to save your state partway through processing variable arguments so you can scan ahead and then rewind back to the save point.
You pass in a src va_list and it copies it to dest.
If you’ve already called this once for a particular dest, you can’t call it (or va_start()) again with the same dest unless you call va_end() on that dest first.
va_copy(dest, src);
va_copy(dest, src2); // BAD!
va_copy(dest, src);
va_start(dest, var); // BAD!
va_copy(dest, src);
va_end(dest);
va_copy(dest, src2); // OK!
va_copy(dest, src);
va_end(dest);
va_start(dest, var); // OK!Returns nothing.
Here’s an example where we’re adding together all the variable arguments, but then we want to go back and add on all the numbers past the first two, for example if the arguments are:
10 20 30 40First we add them all for 100, and then we add on everything from the third number on, so add on 30+40 for a total of 170.
We’ll do this by saving our place in the variable argument processing with va_copy and then using that later to reprocess the trailing arguments.
(And yes, I know there’s a mathematical way to do this without all the rewinding, but I’m having an heck of a time coming up with a good example!)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
// Add all the numbers together, but then add on all the numbers
// past the second one again.
int contrived_adder(int count, ...)
{
if (count < 3) return 0; // OK, I'm being lazy. You got me.
int total = 0;
va_list args, mid_args;
va_start(args, count);
for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
// If we're at the second number, save our place in
// mid_args:
if (i == 2)
va_copy(mid_args, args);
total += va_arg(args, int);
}
va_end(args); // Done with this
// But now let's start with mid_args and add all those on:
for (int i = 0; i < count - 2; i++)
total += va_arg(mid_args, int);
va_end(mid_args); // Done with this, too
return total;
}
int main(void)
{
// 10+20+30 + 30 == 90
printf("%d\n", contrived_adder(3, 10, 20, 30));
// 10+20+30+40+50 + 30+40+50 == 270
printf("%d\n", contrived_adder(5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50));
}va_start(), va_arg(), va_end()
va_end()Signify we’re done processing variable arguments
#include <stdarg.h>
void va_end(va_list ap);After you’ve va_start()ed or va_copy’d a new va_list, you must call va_end() with it before it goes out of scope.
You also have to do this if you’re going to call va_start() or va_copy() again on a variable you’ve already done that to.
Them’s the rules if you want to avoid undefined behavior.
But just think of it as cleanup. You called va_start(), so you’ll call va_end() when you’re done.
Returns nothing.
Here’s a demo that adds together an arbitrary number of integers. The first argument is the number of integers to add together. We’ll make use of that to figure out how many times we have to call va_arg().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
int add(int count, ...)
{
int total = 0;
va_list va;
va_start(va, count); // Start with arguments after "count"
for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
int n = va_arg(va, int); // Get the next int
total += n;
}
va_end(va); // All done
return total;
}
int main(void)
{
printf("%d\n", add(4, 6, 2, -4, 17)); // 6 + 2 - 4 + 17 = 21
printf("%d\n", add(2, 22, 44)); // 22 + 44 = 66
}va_start()Initialize a va_list to start variable argument processing
#include <stdarg.h>
void va_start(va_list ap, parmN);You’ve declared a variable of type va_list to keep track of the variable argument processing… now how to initialize it so you can start calling va_arg() to get those arguments?
va_start() to the rescue!
What you do is pass in your va_list, here shown as parameter ap. Just pass the list, not a pointer to it.
Then for the second argument to va_start(), you give the name of the parameter that you want to start processing arguments after. This must be the parameter right before the ... in the argument list.
If you’ve already called va_start() on a particular va_list and you want to call va_start() on it again, you must call va_end() first!
Returns nothing!
Here’s a demo that adds together an arbitrary number of integers. The first argument is the number of integers to add together. We’ll make use of that to figure out how many times we have to call va_arg().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
int add(int count, ...)
{
int total = 0;
va_list va;
va_start(va, count); // Start with arguments after "count"
for (int i = 0; i < count; i++) {
int n = va_arg(va, int); // Get the next int
total += n;
}
va_end(va); // All done
return total;
}
int main(void)
{
printf("%d\n", add(4, 6, 2, -4, 17)); // 6 + 2 - 4 + 17 = 21
printf("%d\n", add(2, 22, 44)); // 22 + 44 = 66
}<stdatomic.h> Atomic-Related Functions| Function | Description |
|---|---|
atomic_compare_exchange_strong_explicit() |
Atomic compare and exchange, strong, explicit |
atomic_compare_exchange_strong() |
Atomic compare and exchange, strong |
atomic_compare_exchange_weak_explicit() |
Atomic compare and exchange, weak, explicit |
atomic_compare_exchange_weak() |
Atomic compare and exchange, weak |
atomic_exchange_explicit() |
Replace a value in an atomic object, explicit |
atomic_exchange() |
Replace a value in an atomic object |
atomic_fetch_add_explicit() |
Atomically add to an atomic integer, explicit |
atomic_fetch_add() |
Atomically add to an atomic integer |
atomic_fetch_and_explicit() |
Atomically bitwise-AND an atomic integer, explicit |
atomic_fetch_and() |
Atomically bitwise-AND an atomic integer |
atomic_fetch_or_explicit() |
Atomically bitwise-OR an atomic integer, explicit |
atomic_fetch_or() |
Atomically bitwise-OR an atomic integer |
atomic_fetch_sub_explicit() |
Atomically subtract from an atomic integer, explicit |
atomic_fetch_sub() |
Atomically subtract from an atomic integer |
atomic_fetch_xor_explicit() |
Atomically bitwise-XOR an atomic integer, explicit |
atomic_fetch_xor() |
Atomically bitwise-XOR an atomic integer |
atomic_flag_clear_explicit() |
Clear an atomic flag, explicit |
atomic_flag_clear() |
Clear an atomic flag |
atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit() |
Test and set an atomic flag, explicit |
atomic_flag_test_and_set() |
Test and set an atomic flag |
atomic_init() |
Initialize an atomic variable |
atomic_is_lock_free() |
Determine if an atomic type is lock free |
atomic_load_explicit() |
Return a value from an atomic variable, explicit |
atomic_load() |
Return a value from an atomic variable |
atomic_signal_fence() |
Fence for intra-thread signal handlers |
atomic_store_explicit() |
Store a value in an atomic variable, explicit |
atomic_store() |
Store a value in an atomic variable |
atomic_thread_fence() |
Set up a fence |
ATOMIC_VAR_INIT() |
Create an initializer for an atomic variable |
kill_dependency() |
End a dependency chain |
You might need to add -latomic to your compilation command line on Unix-like operating systems.
A bunch of types are predefined by this header:
| Atomic type | Longhand equivalent |
|---|---|
atomic_bool |
_Atomic _Bool |
atomic_char |
_Atomic char |
atomic_schar |
_Atomic signed char |
atomic_uchar |
_Atomic unsigned char |
atomic_short |
_Atomic short |
atomic_ushort |
_Atomic unsigned short |
atomic_int |
_Atomic int |
atomic_uint |
_Atomic unsigned int |
atomic_long |
_Atomic long |
atomic_ulong |
_Atomic unsigned long |
atomic_llong |
_Atomic long long |
atomic_ullong |
_Atomic unsigned long long |
atomic_char16_t |
_Atomic char16_t |
atomic_char32_t |
_Atomic char32_t |
atomic_wchar_t |
_Atomic wchar_t |
atomic_int_least8_t |
_Atomic int_least8_t |
atomic_uint_least8_t |
_Atomic uint_least8_t |
atomic_int_least16_t |
_Atomic int_least16_t |
atomic_uint_least16_t |
_Atomic uint_least16_t |
atomic_int_least32_t |
_Atomic int_least32_t |
atomic_uint_least32_t |
_Atomic uint_least32_t |
atomic_int_least64_t |
_Atomic int_least64_t |
atomic_uint_least64_t |
_Atomic uint_least64_t |
atomic_int_fast8_t |
_Atomic int_fast8_t |
atomic_uint_fast8_t |
_Atomic uint_fast8_t |
atomic_int_fast16_t |
_Atomic int_fast16_t |
atomic_uint_fast16_t |
_Atomic uint_fast16_t |
atomic_int_fast32_t |
_Atomic int_fast32_t |
atomic_uint_fast32_t |
_Atomic uint_fast32_t |
atomic_int_fast64_t |
_Atomic int_fast64_t |
atomic_uint_fast64_t |
_Atomic uint_fast64_t |
atomic_intptr_t |
_Atomic intptr_t |
atomic_uintptr_t |
_Atomic uintptr_t |
atomic_size_t |
_Atomic size_t |
atomic_ptrdiff_t |
_Atomic ptrdiff_t |
atomic_intmax_t |
_Atomic intmax_t |
atomic_uintmax_t |
_Atomic uintmax_t |
You can make your own additional types with the _Atomic type qualifier:
_Atomic double x;or the _Atomic() type specifier:
_Atomic(double) x;These macros let you know if a type is lock-free or not. Maybe.
They can be used at compile time with #if. They apply to both signed and unsigned types.
| Atomic Type | Lock Free Macro |
|---|---|
atomic_bool |
ATOMIC_BOOL_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_char |
ATOMIC_CHAR_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_char16_t |
ATOMIC_CHAR16_T_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_char32_t |
ATOMIC_CHAR32_T_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_wchar_t |
ATOMIC_WCHAR_T_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_short |
ATOMIC_SHORT_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_int |
ATOMIC_INT_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_long |
ATOMIC_LONG_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_llong |
ATOMIC_LLONG_LOCK_FREE |
atomic_intptr_t |
ATOMIC_POINTER_LOCK_FREE |
These macros can interestingly have three different values:
| Value | Meaning |
|---|---|
0 |
Never lock-free. |
1 |
Sometimes lock-free38. |
2 |
Always lock-free. |
The atomic_flag opaque type is the only time guaranteed to be lock-free. Though your PC implementation probably does a lot more.
It is accessed through the atomic_flag_test_and_set() and atomic_flag_clear() functions.
Before use, it can be initialized to a clear state with:
atomic_flag f = ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT;This header introduces a new enum type called memory_order. This is used by a bunch of the functions to specify memory orders other than sequential consistency.
memory_order |
Description |
|---|---|
memory_order_seq_cst |
Sequential Consistency |
memory_order_acq_rel |
Acquire/Release |
memory_order_release |
Release |
memory_order_acquire |
Acquire |
memory_order_consume |
Consume |
memory_order_relaxed |
Relaxed |
You can feed these into atomic functions with the _explicit suffix.
The non-_explcit versions of the functions are the same as if you’d called the _explicit counterpart with memory_order_seq_cst.
ATOMIC_VAR_INIT()Create an initializer for an atomic variable
#include <stdatomic.h>
#define ATOMIC_VAR_INIT(C value) // DeprecatedThis macro expands to an initializer, so you can use it when a variable is defined.
The type of the value should be the base type of the atomic variable.
The initialization itself is not an atomic operation, ironically.
CPPReference says this is deprecated39 and likely to be removed. Standards document p1138r040 elaborates that the macro is limited in that it can’t properly initialize atomic structs, and its original raison d’être turned out to not be useful.
Just initialize the variable straight-up, instead.
Expands to an initializer suitable for this atomic variable.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int main(void)
{
atomic_int x = ATOMIC_VAR_INIT(3490); // Deprecated
printf("%d\n", x);
}atomic_init()Initialize an atomic variable
#include <stdatomic.h>
void atomic_init(volatile A *obj, C value);You can use this to initialize an atomic variable.
The type of the value should be the base type of the atomic variable.
The initialization itself is not an atomic operation, ironically.
As far as I can tell, there’s no difference between this and assigning directly to the atomic variable. The spec says it’s there to allow the compiler to inject any additional initialization that needs doing, but everything seems fine without it. If anyone has more info, send it my way.
Returns nothing!
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int main(void)
{
atomic_int x;
atomic_init(&x, 3490);
printf("%d\n", x);
}ATOMIC_VAR_INIT(), atomic_store(), atomic_store_explicit()
kill_dependency()End a dependency chain
#include <stdatomic.h>
type kill_dependency(type y);This is potentially useful for optimizing if you’re using memory_order_consume anywhere.
And if you know what you’re doing. If unsure, learn more before trying to use this.
Returns the value passed in.
In this example, i carries a dependency into x. And would do into y, except for the call to kill_dependency().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int main(void)
{
atomic_int a;
int i = 10, x, y;
atomic_store_explicit(&a, 3490, memory_order_release);
i = atomic_load_explicit(&a, memory_order_consume);
x = i;
y = kill_dependency(i);
printf("%d %d\n", x, y); // 3490 and either 3490 or 10
}atomic_thread_fence()Set up a fence
#include <stdatomic.h>
void atomic_thread_fence(memory_order order);This sets up a memory fence with the specified order.
order |
Description |
|---|---|
memory_order_seq_cst |
Sequentially consistency acquire/release fence |
memory_order_acq_rel |
Acquire/release dence |
memory_order_release |
Release fence |
memory_order_acquire |
Acquire fence |
memory_order_consume |
Acquire fence (again) |
memory_order_relaxed |
No fence at all—no point in calling with this |
You might try to avoid using these and just stick with the different modes with atomic_store_explicit() and atomic_load_explicit(). Or not.
Returns nothing!
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
atomic_int shared_1 = 1;
atomic_int shared_2 = 2;
int thread_1(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
atomic_store_explicit(&shared_1, 10, memory_order_relaxed);
atomic_thread_fence(memory_order_release);
atomic_store_explicit(&shared_2, 20, memory_order_relaxed);
return 0;
}
int thread_2(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
// If this fence runs after the release fence, we're
// guaranteed to see thread_1's changes to the shared
// varaibles.
atomic_thread_fence(memory_order_acquire);
if (shared_2 == 20) {
printf("Shared_1 better be 10 and it's %d\n", shared_1);
} else {
printf("Anything's possible: %d %d\n", shared_1, shared_2);
}
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t1, t2;
thrd_create(&t2, thread_2, NULL);
thrd_create(&t1, thread_1, NULL);
thrd_join(t1, NULL);
thrd_join(t2, NULL);
}atomic_store_explicit(), atomic_load_explicit(), atomic_signal_fence()
atomic_signal_fence()Fence for intra-thread signal handlers
#include <stdatomic.h>
void atomic_signal_fence(memory_order order);This works like atomic_thread_fence() except its purpose is within in a single thread; notably for use in a signal handler in that thread.
Since signals can happen at any time, we might need a way to be certain that any writes by the thread that happened before the signal handler be visible within that signal handler.
Returns nothing!
Partial demo. (Note that it’s technically undefined behavior to call printf() in a signal handler.)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <signal.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int global;
void handler(int sig)
{
(void)sig;
// If this runs before the release, the handler will
// potentially see global == 0.
//
// Otherwise, it will definitely see global == 10.
atomic_signal_fence(memory_order_acquire);
printf("%d\n", global);
}
int main(void)
{
signal(SIGINT, handler);
global = 10;
atomic_signal_fence(memory_order_release);
// If the signal handler runs after the release
// it will definitely see the value 10 in global.
}atomic_thread_fence(), signal()
atomic_is_lock_free()Determine if an atomic type is lock free
#include <stdatomic.h>
_Bool atomic_is_lock_free(const volatile A *obj);Determines if the variable obj of type A is lock-free. Can be used with any type.
Unlike the lock-free macros which can be used at compile-time, this is strictly a run-time function. So in places where the macros say “maybe”, this function will definitely tell you one way or another if the atomic variable is lock-free.
This is useful when you’re defining your own atomic variables and want to know their lock-free status.
True if the variable is lock-free, false otherwise.
Test if a couple structs and an atomic double are lock-free. On my system, the larger struct is too big to be lock-free, but the other two are OK.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int main(void)
{
struct foo {
int x, y;
};
struct bar {
int x, y, z;
};
_Atomic(double) a;
struct foo b;
struct bar c;
printf("a is lock-free: %d\n", atomic_is_lock_free(&a));
printf("b is lock-free: %d\n", atomic_is_lock_free(&b));
printf("c is lock-free: %d\n", atomic_is_lock_free(&c));
}Output on my system (YMMV):
a is lock-free: 1
b is lock-free: 1
c is lock-free: 0atomic_store()Store a value in an atomic variable
#include <stdatomic.h>
void atomic_store(volatile A *object, C desired);
void atomic_store_explicit(volatile A *object,
C desired, memory_order order);Store a value in an atomic variable, possible synchronized.
This is like a plain assignment, but with more flexibility.
These have the same storage effect for an atomic_int x:
x = 10;
atomic_store(&x, 10);
atomic_store_explicit(&x, 10, memory_order_seq_cst);But the last function, atomic_store_explicit(), lets you specify the memory order.
Since this is a “release-y” operation, none of the “acquire-y” memory orders are legal. order can be only be memory_order_seq_cst, memory_order_release, or memory_order_relaxed.
order cannot be memory_order_acq_rel, memory_order_acquire, or memory_order_consume.
Returns nothing!
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int main(void)
{
atomic_int x = 0;
atomic_int y = 0;
atomic_store(&x, 10);
atomic_store_explicit(&y, 20, memory_order_relaxed);
// Will print either "10 20" or "10 0":
printf("%d %d\n", x, y);
}atomic_init(), atomic_load(), atomic_load_explicit(), atomic_exchange(),
atomic_exchange_explicit(), atomic_compare_exchange_strong(),
atomic_compare_exchange_strong_explicit(), atomic_compare_exchange_weak(),
atomic_compare_exchange_weak_explicit(), atomic_fetch_*()
atomic_load()Return a value from an atomic variable
#include <stdatomic.h>
C atomic_load(const volatile A *object);
C atomic_load_explicit(const volatile A *object, memory_order order);For a pointer to an object of type A, atomically returns its value C. This is a generic function that can be used with any type.
The function atomic_load_explicit() lets you specify the memory order.
Since this is an “acquire-y” operation, none of the “release-y” memory orders are legal. order can be only be memory_order_seq_cst, memory_order_acquire, memory_order_consume, or memory_order_relaxed.
order cannot be memory_order_acq_rel or memory_order_release.
Returns the value stored in object.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int main(void)
{
atomic_int x = 10;
int v = atomic_load(&x);
printf("%d\n", v); // 10
}atomic_store(), atomic_store_explicit()
atomic_exchange()Replace a value in an atomic object
#include <stdatomic.h>
C atomic_exchange(volatile A *object, C desired);
C atomic_exchange_explicit(volatile A *object, C desired,
memory_order order);Sets the value in object to desired.
object is type A, some atomic type.
desired is type C, the respective non-atomic type to A.
This is very similar to atomic_store(), except the previous value is atomically returned.
Returns the previous value of object.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int main(void)
{
atomic_int x = 10;
int previous = atomic_exchange(&x, 20);
printf("x is %d\n", x);
printf("x was %d\n", previous);
}Output:
x is 20
x was 10atomic_init(), atomic_load(), atomic_load_explicit(), atomic_store(),
atomic_store_explicit() atomic_compare_exchange_strong(),
atomic_compare_exchange_strong_explicit(), atomic_compare_exchange_weak(),
atomic_compare_exchange_weak_explicit()
atomic_compare_exchange_*()Atomic compare and exchange
#include <stdatomic.h>
_Bool atomic_compare_exchange_strong(volatile A *object,
C *expected, C desired);
_Bool atomic_compare_exchange_strong_explicit(volatile A *object,
C *expected, C desired,
memory_order success,
memory_order failure);
_Bool atomic_compare_exchange_weak(volatile A *object,
C *expected, C desired);
_Bool atomic_compare_exchange_weak_explicit(volatile A *object,
C *expected, C desired,
memory_order success,
memory_order failure);The venerable basis for some many things lock-free: compare and exchange.
In the above prototypes, A is the type of the atomic object, and C is the equivalent base type.
Ignoring the _explicit versions for a moment, what these do is:
If the value pointed to by object is equal to the value pointed to by expected, then the value pointed to by object is set to desired. And the function returns true indicating the exchange did take place.
Else the value pointed to by expected (yes, expected) is set to desired and the function returns false indicating the exchange did not take place.
Pseudocode for the exchange would look like this41:
bool compare_exchange(atomic_A *object, C *expected, C desired)
{
if (*object is the same as *expected) {
*object = desired
return true
}
*expected = desired
return false
}The _weak variants might spontaneously fail, so even if *object == *desired, it might not change the value and will return false. So you’ll want that in a loop if you use it42.
The _explicit variants have two memory orders: success if *object is set to desired, and failure if it is not.
These are test-and-set functions, so you can use memory_order_acq_rel with the _explicit variants.
Returns true if *object was *expected. Otherwise, false.
A contrived example where multiple threads add 2 to a shared value in a lock-free way.
(It would be better to use += 2 to get this done in real life unless you were using some _explicit wizardry.)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
#define LOOP_COUNT 10000
atomic_int value;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
for(int i = 0; i < LOOP_COUNT; i++) {
int cur = value;
int next;
do {
next = cur + 2;
} while (!atomic_compare_exchange_strong(&value, &cur, next));
}
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t1, t2;
thrd_create(&t1, run, NULL);
thrd_create(&t2, run, NULL);
thrd_join(t1, NULL);
thrd_join(t2, NULL);
printf("%d should equal %d\n", value, LOOP_COUNT * 4);
}Just replacing this with value = value + 2 causes data trampling.
atomic_load(), atomic_load_explicit(), atomic_store(), atomic_store_explicit(), atomic_exchange(), atomic_exchange_explicit(), atomic_fetch_*()
atomic_fetch_*()Atomically modify atomic variables
#include <stdatomic.h>
C atomic_fetch_KEY(volatile A *object, M operand);
C atomic_fetch_KEY_explicit(volatile A *object, M operand,
memory_order order);These are actually a group of 10 functions. You substitute one of the following for KEY to perform that operation:
addsuborxorandSo these functions can add or subtract values to or from an atomic variable, or can perform bitwise-OR, XOR, or AND on them.
Use it with integer or pointer types. Though the spec is a little vague on the matter, other types make C unhappy. It goes out of its way to avoid undefined behavior with signed integers, as well:
C18 §7.17.7.5 ¶3:
For signed integer types, arithmetic is defined to use two’s complement representation with silent wrap-around on overflow; there are no undefined results.
In the synopsis, above, A is an atomic type, and M is the corresponding non-atomic type for A (or ptrdiff_t for atomic pointers), and C is the corresponding non-atomic type for A.
For example, here are some operations on an atomic_int.
atomic_fetch_add(&x, 20);
atomic_fetch_sub(&x, 37);
atomic_fetch_xor(&x, 3490);They are the same as +=, -=, |=, ^= and &=, except the return value is the previous value of the atomic object. (With the assignment operators, the value of the expression is that after its evaluation.)
atomic_int x = 10;
int prev = atomic_fetch_add(&x, 20);
printf("%d %d\n", prev, x); // 10 30versus:
atomic_int x = 10;
int prev = (x += 20);
printf("%d %d\n", prev, x); // 30 30And, of course, the _explicit version allows you to specify a memory order and all the assignment operators are memory_order_seq_cst.
Returns the previous value of the atomic object before the modification.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
int main(void)
{
atomic_int x = 0;
int prev;
atomic_fetch_add(&x, 3490);
atomic_fetch_sub(&x, 12);
atomic_fetch_xor(&x, 444);
atomic_fetch_or(&x, 12);
prev = atomic_fetch_and(&x, 42);
printf("%d %d\n", prev, x); // 3118 42
}atomic_exchange(), atomic_exchange_explicit(), atomic_compare_exchange_strong(),
atomic_compare_exchange_strong_explicit(), atomic_compare_exchange_weak(),
atomic_compare_exchange_weak_explicit()
atomic_flag_test_and_set()Test and set an atomic flag
#include <stdatomic.h>
_Bool atomic_flag_test_and_set(volatile atomic_flag *object);
_Bool atomic_flag_test_and_set_explicit(volatile atomic_flag *object,
memory_order order);One of the venerable old functions of lock-free programming, this function sets the given atomic flag in object, and returns the previous value of the flag.
As usual, the _explicit allows you to specify an alternate memory order.
Returns true if the flag was set previously, and false if it wasn’t.
Using test-and-set to implement a spin lock43:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
// Shared non-atomic struct
struct {
int x, y, z;
} s = {1, 2, 3};
atomic_flag f = ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT;
int run(void *arg)
{
int tid = *(int*)arg;
printf("Thread %d: waiting for lock...\n", tid);
while (atomic_flag_test_and_set(&f));
printf("Thread %d: got lock, s is {%d, %d, %d}\n", tid,
s.x, s.y, s.z);
s.x = (tid + 1) * 5 + 0;
s.y = (tid + 1) * 5 + 1;
s.z = (tid + 1) * 5 + 2;
printf("Thread %d: set s to {%d, %d, %d}\n", tid, s.x, s.y, s.z);
printf("Thread %d: releasing lock...\n", tid);
atomic_flag_clear(&f);
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t1, t2;
int tid[] = {0, 1};
thrd_create(&t1, run, tid+0);
thrd_create(&t2, run, tid+1);
thrd_join(t1, NULL);
thrd_join(t2, NULL);
}Example output (varies run to run):
Thread 0: waiting for lock...
Thread 0: got lock, s is {1, 2, 3}
Thread 1: waiting for lock...
Thread 0: set s to {5, 6, 7}
Thread 0: releasing lock...
Thread 1: got lock, s is {5, 6, 7}
Thread 1: set s to {10, 11, 12}
Thread 1: releasing lock...atomic_flag_clear()Clear an atomic flag
#include <stdatomic.h>
void atomic_flag_clear(volatile atomic_flag *object);
void atomic_flag_clear_explicit(volatile atomic_flag *object,
memory_order order);Clears an atomic flag.
As usual, the _explicit allows you to specify an alternate memory order.
Returns nothing!
Using test-and-set to implement a spin lock44:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
#include <stdatomic.h>
// Shared non-atomic struct
struct {
int x, y, z;
} s = {1, 2, 3};
atomic_flag f = ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT;
int run(void *arg)
{
int tid = *(int*)arg;
printf("Thread %d: waiting for lock...\n", tid);
while (atomic_flag_test_and_set(&f));
printf("Thread %d: got lock, s is {%d, %d, %d}\n", tid,
s.x, s.y, s.z);
s.x = (tid + 1) * 5 + 0;
s.y = (tid + 1) * 5 + 1;
s.z = (tid + 1) * 5 + 2;
printf("Thread %d: set s to {%d, %d, %d}\n", tid, s.x, s.y, s.z);
printf("Thread %d: releasing lock...\n", tid);
atomic_flag_clear(&f);
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t1, t2;
int tid[] = {0, 1};
thrd_create(&t1, run, tid+0);
thrd_create(&t2, run, tid+1);
thrd_join(t1, NULL);
thrd_join(t2, NULL);
}Example output (varies run to run):
Thread 0: waiting for lock...
Thread 0: got lock, s is {1, 2, 3}
Thread 1: waiting for lock...
Thread 0: set s to {5, 6, 7}
Thread 0: releasing lock...
Thread 1: got lock, s is {5, 6, 7}
Thread 1: set s to {10, 11, 12}
Thread 1: releasing lock...<stdbool.h> Boolean TypesThis is a small header file that defines a number of convenient Boolean macros. If you really need that kind of thing.
| Macro | Description |
|---|---|
bool |
Type for Boolean, expands to _Bool |
true |
True value, expands to 1 |
false |
False value, expands to 0 |
There’s one more macro that I’m not putting in the table because it’s such a long name it’ll blow up the table alignment:
__bool_true_false_are_definedwhich expands to 1.
Here’s a lame example that shows off these macros.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
int main(void)
{
bool x;
x = (3 > 2);
if (x == true)
printf("The universe still makes sense.\n");
x = false;
printf("x is now %d\n", x); // 0
}Output:
The universe still makes sense.
x is now 0_Bool?What’s the deal with _Bool? Why didn’t they just make it bool?
Well, there was a lot of C code out there where people had defined their own bool type and adding an official bool would have broken those typedefs.
But C has already reserved all identifiers that start with an underscore followed by a capital letter, so it was clear to make up a new _Bool type and go with that.
And, if you know your code can handle it, you can include this header to get all this juicy syntax.
One more note on conversions: unlike converting to int, the only thing that converts to false in a _Bool is a scalar zero value. Anything at all that’s not zero, like -3490, 0.12, or NaN, converts to true.
<stddef.h> A Few Standard DefinitionsDespite its name, I’ve haven’t seen this frequently included.
It includes several types and macros.
| Name | Description |
|---|---|
ptrdiff_t |
Signed integer difference between two pointers |
size_t |
Unsigned integer type returned by sizeof |
max_align_t |
Declare a type with the biggest possible alignment |
wchar_t |
Wide character type |
NULL |
NULL pointer, as defined a number of places |
offsetof |
Get the byte offsets of struct or union fields |
ptrdiff_tThis holds the different between two pointers. You could store this in another type, but the result of a pointer subtraction is an implementation-defined type; you can be maximally portable by using ptrdiff_t.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stddef.h>
int main(void)
{
int cats[100];
int *f = cats + 20;
int *g = cats + 60;
ptrdiff_t d = g - f; // difference is 40And you can print it by prefixing the integer format specifier with t:
size_tThis is the type returned by sizeof and used in a few other places. It’s an unsigned integer.
You can print it using the z prefix in printf():
#include <stdio.h>
#include <uchar.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stddef.h>
int main(void)
{
size_t x;
x = sizeof(int);
printf("%zu\n", x);Some functions return negative numbers cast to size_t as error values (such as mbrtoc16()). If you want to print these as negative values, you can do it with %zd:
char16_t a;
mbstate_t mbs;
memset(&mbs, 0, sizeof mbs);
x = mbrtoc16(&a, "b", 8, &mbs);
printf("%zd\n", x);
}max_align_tAs far as I can tell, this exists to allow the runtime computation of the maximum fundamental alignment45 on the current platform. Someone please mail me if there’s another use.
Maybe you need this if you’re writing your own memory allocator or somesuch.
#include <stddef.h>
#include <stdio.h> // For printf()
#include <stdalign.h> // For alignof
int main(void)
{
int max = alignof(max_align_t);
printf("Maximum fundamental alignment: %d\n", max);
}On my system, this prints:
Maximum fundamental alignment: 16wchar_tThis is analogous to char, except it’s for wide characters.
It’s an integer type that has enough range to hold unique values for all characters in all supported locales.
The value 0 is the wide NUL character.
Finally, the values of character constants from the basic character set will be the same as their corresponding wchar_t values… unless __STDC_MB_MIGHT_NEQ_WC__ is defined.
offsetofIf you have a struct or union, you can use this to get the byte offset of fields within that type.
Usage is:
offsetof(type, fieldname);The resulting value has type size_t.
Here’s an example that prints the field offsets of a struct:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stddef.h>
struct foo {
int a;
char b;
char c;
float d;
};
int main(void)
{
printf("a: %zu\n", offsetof(struct foo, a));
printf("b: %zu\n", offsetof(struct foo, b));
printf("c: %zu\n", offsetof(struct foo, c));
printf("d: %zu\n", offsetof(struct foo, d));
}On my system, this outputs:
a: 0
b: 4
c: 5
d: 8And you can’t use offsetof on a bitfield, so don’t get your hopes up.
<stdint.h> More Integer TypesThis header gives us access to (potentially) types of a fixed number of bits, or, at the very least, types that are at least that many bits.
It also gives us handy macros to use.
There are three main classes of types defined here, signed and unsigned:
intN_t, uintN_t)int_leastN_t, uint_leastN_t)int_fastN_t, uint_fastN_t)Where the N occurs, you substitute the number of bits, commonly multiples of 8, e.g. uint16_t.
The following types are guaranteed to be defined:
int_least8_t uint_least8_t
int_least16_t uint_least16_t
int_least32_t uint_least32_t
int_least64_t uint_least64_t
int_fast8_t uint_fast8_t
int_fast16_t uint_fast16_t
int_fast32_t uint_fast32_t
int_fast64_t uint_fast64_tEverything else is optional, but you’ll probably also have the following, which are required when a system has integers of these sizes with no padding and two’s-complement representation… which is the case for Macs and PCs and a lot of other systems. In short, you very likely have these:
int8_t uint8_t
int16_t uint16_t
int32_t uint32_t
int64_t uint64_tOther numbers of bits can also be supported by an implementation if it wants to go all crazy with it.
Examples:
#include <stdint.h>
int main(void)
{
int16_t x = 32;
int_fast32_t y = 3490;
// ...There are a couple optional types that are integers capable of holding pointer types.
intptr_t
uintptr_tYou can convert a void* to one of these types, and back again. And the void*s will compare equal.
The use case is any place you need an integer that represents a pointer for some reason.
Also, there are a couple types that are just there to be the biggest possible integers your system supports:
intmax_t
uintmax_tFun fact: you can print these types with the "%jd" and "%ju" printf() format specifiers.
There are also a bunch of macros in <inttypes.h>(#inttypes) that you can use to print any of the types mentioned, above.
The following macros define the minimum and maximum values for these types:
INT8_MAX INT8_MIN UINT8_MAX
INT16_MAX INT16_MIN UINT16_MAX
INT32_MAX INT32_MIN UINT32_MAX
INT64_MAX INT64_MIN UINT64_MAX
INT_LEAST8_MAX INT_LEAST8_MIN UINT_LEAST8_MAX
INT_LEAST16_MAX INT_LEAST16_MIN UINT_LEAST16_MAX
INT_LEAST32_MAX INT_LEAST32_MIN UINT_LEAST32_MAX
INT_LEAST64_MAX INT_LEAST64_MIN UINT_LEAST64_MAX
INT_FAST8_MAX INT_FAST8_MIN UINT_FAST8_MAX
INT_FAST16_MAX INT_FAST16_MIN UINT_FAST16_MAX
INT_FAST32_MAX INT_FAST32_MIN UINT_FAST32_MAX
INT_FAST64_MAX INT_FAST64_MIN UINT_FAST64_MAX
INTMAX_MAX INTMAX_MIN UINTMAX_MAX
INTPTR_MAX INTPTR_MIN UINTPTR_MAXFor the exact-bit-size signed types, the minimum is exactly \(-(2^{N-1})\) and the maximum is exactly \(2^{N-1}-1\). And for the exact-bit-size unsigned types, the max is exactly \(2^N-1\).
For the signed “least” and “fast” variants, the magnitude and sign of the minimum is at least \(-(2^{N-1}-1)\) and the maximum is at least \(2^{N-1}-1\). And for unsigned it’s at least \(2^N-1\).
INTMAX_MAX is at least \(2^{63}-1\), INTMAX_MIN is at least \(-(2^{63}-1)\) in sign and magnitude. And UINTMAX_MAX is at least \(2^{64}-1\).
Finally, INTPTR_MAX is at least \(2^{15}-1\), INTPTR_MIN is at least \(-(2^{15}-1)\) in sign and magnitude. And UINTPTR_MAX is at least \(2^{16}-1\).
There are a bunch of types in <inttypes.h>(#inttypes) that have their limits defined here. (<inttypes.h> includes <stdint.h>.)
| Macro | Description |
|---|---|
PTRDIFF_MIN |
Minimum ptrdiff_t value |
PTRDIFF_MAX |
Maximum ptrdiff_t value |
SIG_ATOMIC_MIN |
Minimum sig_atomic_t value |
SIG_ATOMIC_MAX |
Maximum sig_atomic_t value |
SIZE_MAX |
Maximum size_t value |
WCHAR_MIN |
Minimum wchar_t value |
WCHAR_MAX |
Maximum wchar_t value |
WINT_MIN |
Minimum wint_t value |
WINT_MAX |
Maximum wint_t value |
The spec says that PTRDIFF_MIN will be at least -65535 in magnitude. And PTRDIFF_MAX and SIZE_MAX will be at least 65535.
SIG_ATOMIC_MIN and MAX will be either -127 and 127 (if it’s signed) or 0 and 255 (if it’s unsigned).
Same for WCHAR_MIN and MAX.
WINT_MIN and MAX will be either -32767 and 32767 (if it’s signed) or 0 and 65535 (if it’s unsigned).
If you recall, you can specify a type for integer constants:
int x = 12;
long int y = 12L;
unsigned long long int z = 12ULL;You can use the macros INTN_C() and UINTN() where N is 8, 16, 32 or 64.
uint_least16_t x = INT16_C(3490);
uint_least64_t y = INT64_C(1122334455);A variant on these is INTMAX_C() and UINTMAX_C(). They will make a constant suitable for storing in an intmax_t or uintmax_t.
intmax_t x = INTMAX_C(3490);
uintmax_t x = UINTMAX_C(1122334455);<stdio.h> Standard I/O Library| Function | Description |
|---|---|
clearerr() |
Clear the feof and ferror status flags |
fclose() |
Close an open file |
feof() |
Return the file end-of-file status |
ferror() |
Return the file error status |
fflush() |
Flush all buffered output to a file |
fgetc() |
Read a character in a file |
fgetpos() |
Get the file I/O position |
fgets() |
Read a line from a file |
fopen() |
Open a file |
fprintf() |
Print formatted output to a file |
fputc() |
Print a character to a file |
fputs() |
Print a string to a file |
fread() |
Read binary data from a file |
freopen() |
Change file associated with a stream |
fscanf() |
Read formatted input from a file |
fseek() |
Set the file I/O position |
fsetpos() |
Set the file I/O position |
ftell() |
Get the file I/O position |
fwrite() |
Write binary data to a file |
getc() |
Get a character from stdin |
getchar() |
Get a character from stdin |
gets() |
Get a string from stdin (removed in C11) |
perror() |
Print a human-formatted error message |
printf() |
Print formatted output to stdout |
putc() |
Print a character to stdout |
putchar() |
Print a character to stdout |
puts() |
Print a string to stdout |
remove() |
Delete a file from disk |
rename() |
Rename or move a file on disk |
rewind() |
Set the I/O position to the beginning of a file |
scanf() |
Read formatted input from stdin |
setbuf() |
Configure buffering for I/O operations |
setvbuf() |
Configure buffering for I/O operations |
snprintf() |
Print length-limited formatted output to a string |
sprintf() |
Print formatted output to a string |
sscanf() |
Read formatted input from a string |
tmpfile() |
Create a temporary file |
tmpnam() |
Generate a unique name for a temporary file |
ungetc() |
Push a character back on the input stream |
vfprintf() |
Variadic print formatted output to a file |
vfscanf() |
Variadic read formatted input from a file |
vprintf() |
Variadic print formatted output to stdout |
vscanf() |
Variadic read formatted input from stdin |
vsnprintf() |
Variadic length-limited print formatted output to a string |
vsprintf() |
Variadic print formatted output to a string |
vsscanf() |
Variadic read formatted input to a string |
The most basic of all libraries in the whole of the standard C library is the standard I/O library. It’s used for reading from and writing to files. I can see you’re very excited about this.
So I’ll continue. It’s also used for reading and writing to the console, as we’ve already often seen with the printf() function.
(A little secret here—many many things in various operating systems are secretly files deep down, and the console is no exception. “Everything in Unix is a file!” :-))
You’ll probably want some prototypes of the functions you can use, right? To get your grubby little mittens on those, you’ll want to include stdio.h.
Anyway, so we can do all kinds of cool stuff in terms of file I/O. LIE DETECTED. Ok, ok. We can do all kinds of stuff in terms of file I/O. Basically, the strategy is this:
Use fopen() to get a pointer to a file structure of type FILE*. This pointer is what you’ll be passing to many of the other file I/O calls.
Use some of the other file calls, like fscanf(), fgets(), fprintf(), or etc. using the FILE* returned from fopen().
When done, call fclose() with the FILE*. This let’s the operating system know that you’re truly done with the file, no take-backs.
What’s in the FILE*? Well, as you might guess, it points to a struct that contains all kinds of information about the current read and write position in the file, how the file was opened, and other stuff like that. But, honestly, who cares. No one, that’s who. The FILE structure is opaque to you as a programmer; that is, you don’t need to know what’s in it, and you don’t even want to know what’s in it. You just pass it to the other standard I/O functions and they know what to do.
This is actually pretty important: try to not muck around in the FILE structure. It’s not even the same from system to system, and you’ll end up writing some really non-portable code.
One more thing to mention about the standard I/O library: a lot of the functions that operate on files use an “f” prefix on the function name. The same function that is operating on the console will leave the “f” off. For instance, if you want to print to the console, you use printf(), but if you want to print to a file, use fprintf(), see?
Wait a moment! If writing to the console is, deep down, just like writing to a file, since everything in Unix is a file, why are there two functions? Answer: it’s more convenient. But, more importantly, is there a FILE* associated with the console that you can use? Answer: YES!
There are, in fact, three (count ’em!) special FILE*s you have at your disposal merely for just including stdio.h. There is one for input, and two for output.
That hardly seems fair—why does output get two files, and input only get one?
That’s jumping the gun a bit—let’s just look at them:
| Stream | Description |
|---|---|
stdin |
Input from the console. |
stdout |
Output to the console. |
stderr |
Output to the console on the error file stream. |
So standard input (stdin) is by default just what you type at the keyboard. You can use that in fscanf() if you want, just like this:
/* this line: */
scanf("%d", &x);
/* is just like this line: */
fscanf(stdin, "%d", &x);And stdout works the same way:
printf("Hello, world!\n");
fprintf(stdout, "Hello, world!\n"); /* same as previous line! */So what is this stderr thing? What happens when you output to that? Well, generally it goes to the console just like stdout, but people use it for error messages, specifically. Why? On many systems you can redirect the output from the program into a file from the command line…and sometimes you’re interested in getting just the error output. So if the program is good and writes all its errors to stderr, a user can redirect just stderr into a file, and just see that. It’s just a nice thing you, as a programmer, can do.
Finally, a lot of these functions return int where you might expect char. This is because the function can return a character or end-of-file (EOF), and EOF is potentially an integer. If you don’t get EOF as a return value, you can safely store the result in a char.
remove()Delete a file
#include <stdio.h>
int remove(const char *filename); Removes the specified file from the filesystem. It just deletes it. Nothing magical. Simply call this function and sacrifice a small chicken and the requested file will be deleted.
Returns zero on success, and -1 on error, setting errno.
rename()Renames a file and optionally moves it to a new location
#include <stdio.h>
int rename(const char *old, const char *new);Renames the file old to name new. Use this function if you’re tired of the old name of the file, and you are ready for a change. Sometimes simply renaming your files makes them feel new again, and could save you money over just getting all new files!
One other cool thing you can do with this function is actually move a file from one directory to another by specifying a different path for the new name.
Returns zero on success, and -1 on error, setting errno.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
// Rename a file
rename("foo", "bar");
// Rename and move to another directory:
rename("/home/beej/evidence.txt", "/tmp/nothing.txt");
}tmpfile()Create a temporary file
#include <stdio.h>
FILE *tmpfile(void);This is a nifty little function that will create and open a temporary file for you, and will return a FILE* to it that you can use. The file is opened with mode “r+b”, so it’s suitable for reading, writing, and binary data.
By using a little magic, the temp file is automatically deleted when it is close()’d or when your program exits. (Specifically, in Unix terms, tmpfile() unlinks46 the file right after it opens it. This means that it’s primed to be deleted from disk, but still exists because your process still has it open. As soon as your process exits, all open files are closed, and the temp file vanishes into the ether.)
This function returns an open FILE* on success, or NULL on failure.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *temp;
char s[128];
temp = tmpfile();
fprintf(temp, "What is the frequency, Alexander?\n");
rewind(temp); // back to the beginning
fscanf(temp, "%s", s); // read it back out
fclose(temp); // close (and magically delete)
}tmpnam()Generate a unique name for a temporary file
#include <stdio.h>
char *tmpnam(char *s);This function takes a good hard look at the existing files on your system, and comes up with a unique name for a new file that is suitable for temporary file usage.
Let’s say you have a program that needs to store off some data for a short time so you create a temporary file for the data, to be deleted when the program is done running. Now imagine that you called this file foo.txt. This is all well and good, except what if a user already has a file called foo.txt in the directory that you ran your program from? You’d overwrite their file, and they’d be unhappy and stalk you forever. And you wouldn’t want that, now would you?
Ok, so you get wise, and you decide to put the file in /tmp so that it won’t overwrite any important content. But wait! What if some other user is running your program at the same time and they both want to use that filename? Or what if some other program has already created that file?
See, all of these scary problems can be completely avoided if you just use tmpnam() to get a safe-ready-to-use filename.
So how do you use it? There are two amazing ways. One, you can declare an array (or malloc() it—whatever) that is big enough to hold the temporary file name. How big is that? Fortunately there has been a macro defined for you, L_tmpnam, which is how big the array must be.
And the second way: just pass NULL for the filename. tmpnam() will store the temporary name in a static array and return a pointer to that. Subsequent calls with a NULL argument will overwrite the static array, so be sure you’re done using it before you call tmpnam() again.
Again, this function just makes a file name for you. It’s up to you to later fopen() the file and use it.
One more note: some compilers warn against using tmpnam() since some systems have better functions (like the Unix function mkstemp().) You might want to check your local documentation to see if there’s a better option. Linux documentation goes so far as to say, “Never use this function. Use mkstemp() instead.”
I, however, am going to be a jerk and not talk about mkstemp()47 because it’s not in the standard I’m writing about. Nyaah.
The macro TMP_MAX holds the number of unique filenames that can be generated by tmpnam(). Ironically, it is the minimum number of such filenames.
Returns a pointer to the temporary file name. This is either a pointer to the string you passed in, or a pointer to internal static storage if you passed in NULL. On error (like it can’t find any temporary name that is unique), tmpnam() returns NULL.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
char filename[L_tmpnam];
char *another_filename;
if (tmpnam(filename) != NULL)
printf("We got a temp file name: \"%s\"\n", filename);
else
printf("Something went wrong, and we got nothing!\n");
another_filename = tmpnam(NULL);
printf("We got another temp file name: \"%s\"\n", another_filename);
printf("And we didn't error check it because we're too lazy!\n");
}On my Linux system, this generates the following output:
We got a temp file name: "/tmp/filew9PMuZ"
We got another temp file name: "/tmp/fileOwrgPO"
And we didn't error check it because we're too lazy!fclose()The opposite of fopen()—closes a file when you’re done with it so that it frees system resources
#include <stdio.h>
int fclose(FILE *stream);When you open a file, the system sets aside some resources to maintain information about that open file. Usually it can only open so many files at once. In any case, the Right Thing to do is to close your files when you’re done using them so that the system resources are freed.
Also, you might not find that all the information that you’ve written to the file has actually been written to disk until the file is closed. (You can force this with a call to fflush().)
When your program exits normally, it closes all open files for you. Lots of times, though, you’ll have a long-running program, and it’d be better to close the files before then. In any case, not closing a file you’ve opened makes you look bad. So, remember to fclose() your file when you’re done with it!
On success, 0 is returned. Typically no one checks for this. On error EOF is returned. Typically no one checks for this, either.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("spoon.txt", "r");
if (fp == NULL) {
printf("Error opening file\n");
} else {
printf("Opened file just fine!\n");
fclose(fp); // All done!
}
}fflush()Process all buffered I/O for a stream right now
#include <stdio.h>
int fflush(FILE *stream);When you do standard I/O, as mentioned in the section on the setvbuf() function, it is usually stored in a buffer until a line has been entered or the buffer is full or the file is closed. Sometimes, though, you really want the output to happen right this second, and not wait around in the buffer. You can force this to happen by calling fflush().
The advantage to buffering is that the OS doesn’t need to hit the disk every time you call fprintf(). The disadvantage is that if you look at the file on the disk after the fprintf() call, it might not have actually been written to yet. (“I called fputs(), but the file is still zero bytes long! Why?!”) In virtually all circumstances, the advantages of buffering outweigh the disadvantages; for those other circumstances, however, use fflush().
Note that fflush() is only designed to work on output streams according to the spec. What will happen if you try it on an input stream? Use your spooky voice: who knooooows!
On success, fflush() returns zero. If there’s an error, it returns EOF and sets the error condition for the stream (see ferror().)
In this example, we’re going to use the carriage return, which is '\r'. This is like newline ('\n'), except that it doesn’t move to the next line. It just returns to the front of the current line.
What we’re going to do is a little text-based status bar like so many command line programs implement. It’ll do a countdown from 10 to 0 printing over itself on the same line.
What is the catch and what does this have to do with fflush()? The catch is that the terminal is most likely “line buffered” (see the section on setvbuf() for more info), meaning that it won’t actually display anything until it prints a newline. But we’re not printing newlines; we’re just printing carriage returns, so we need a way to force the output to occur even though we’re on the same line. Yes, it’s fflush()!
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
void sleep_seconds(int s)
{
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_sec=s}, NULL);
}
int main(void)
{
int count;
for(count = 10; count >= 0; count--) {
printf("\rSeconds until launch: "); // lead with a CR
if (count > 0)
printf("%2d", count);
else
printf("blastoff!\n");
// force output now!!
fflush(stdout);
sleep_seconds(1);
}
}fopen()Opens a file for reading or writing
#include <stdio.h>
FILE *fopen(const char *path, const char *mode);The fopen() opens a file for reading or writing.
Parameter path can be a relative or fully-qualified path and file name to the file in question.
Parameter mode tells fopen() how to open the file (reading, writing, or both), and whether or not it’s a binary file. Possible modes are:
| Mode | Description |
|---|---|
r |
Open the file for reading (read-only). |
w |
Open the file for writing (write-only). The file is created if it doesn’t exist. |
r+ |
Open the file for reading and writing. The file has to already exist. |
w+ |
Open the file for writing and reading. The file is created if it doesn’t already exist. |
a |
Open the file for append. This is just like opening a file for writing, but it positions the file pointer at the end of the file, so the next write appends to the end. The file is created if it doesn’t exist. |
a+ |
Open the file for reading and appending. The file is created if it doesn’t exist. |
Any of the modes can have the letter “b” appended to the end, as is “wb” (“write binary”), to signify that the file in question is a binary file. (“Binary” in this case generally means that the file contains non-alphanumeric characters that look like garbage to human eyes.) Many systems (like Unix) don’t differentiate between binary and non-binary files, so the “b” is extraneous. But if your data is binary, it doesn’t hurt to throw the “b” in there, and it might help someone who is trying to port your code to another system.
The macro FOPEN_MAX tells you how many streams (at least) you can have open at once.
The macro FILENAME_MAX tells you what the longest valid filename can be. Don’t go crazy, now.
fopen() returns a FILE* that can be used in subsequent file-related calls.
If something goes wrong (e.g. you tried to open a file for read that didn’t exist), fopen() will return NULL.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("spoon.txt", "r");
if (fp == NULL) {
printf("Error opening file\n");
} else {
printf("Opened file just fine!\n");
fclose(fp); // All done!
}
}freopen()Reopen an existing FILE*, associating it with a new path
#include <stdio.h>
FILE *freopen(const char *filename, const char *mode, FILE *stream);Let’s say you have an existing FILE* stream that’s already open, but you want it to suddenly use a different file than the one it’s using. You can use freopen() to “re-open” the stream with a new file.
Why on Earth would you ever want to do that? Well, the most common reason would be if you had a program that normally would read from stdin, but instead you wanted it to read from a file. Instead of changing all your scanf()s to fscanf()s, you could simply reopen stdin on the file you wanted to read from.
Another usage that is allowed on some systems is that you can pass NULL for filename, and specify a new mode for stream. So you could change a file from “r+” (read and write) to just “r” (read), for instance. It’s implementation dependent which modes can be changed.
When you call freopen(), the old stream is closed. Otherwise, the function behaves just like the standard fopen().
freopen() returns stream if all goes well.
If something goes wrong (e.g. you tried to open a file for read that didn’t exist), freopen() will return NULL.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int i, i2;
scanf("%d", &i); // read i from stdin
// now change stdin to refer to a file instead of the keyboard
freopen("someints.txt", "r", stdin);
scanf("%d", &i2); // now this reads from the file "someints.txt"
printf("Hello, world!\n"); // print to the screen
// change stdout to go to a file instead of the terminal:
freopen("output.txt", "w", stdout);
printf("This goes to the file \"output.txt\"\n");
// this is allowed on some systems--you can change the mode of a file:
freopen(NULL, "wb", stdout); // change to "wb" instead of "w"
}setbuf(), setvbuf()Configure buffering for standard I/O operations
#include <stdio.h>
void setbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf);
int setvbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf, int mode, size_t size);Now brace yourself because this might come as a bit of a surprise to you: when you printf() or fprintf() or use any I/O functions like that, it does not normally work immediately. For the sake of efficiency, and to irritate you, the I/O on a FILE* stream is buffered away safely until certain conditions are met, and only then is the actual I/O performed. The functions setbuf() and setvbuf() allow you to change those conditions and the buffering behavior.
So what are the different buffering behaviors? The biggest is called “full buffering”, wherein all I/O is stored in a big buffer until it is full, and then it is dumped out to disk (or whatever the file is). The next biggest is called “line buffering”; with line buffering, I/O is stored up a line at a time (until a newline ('\n') character is encountered) and then that line is processed. Finally, we have “unbuffered”, which means I/O is processed immediately with every standard I/O call.
You might have seen and wondered why you could call putchar() time and time again and not see any output until you called putchar('\n'); that’s right—stdout is line-buffered!
Since setbuf() is just a simplified version of setvbuf(), we’ll talk about setvbuf() first.
The stream is the FILE* you wish to modify. The standard says you must make your call to setvbuf() before any I/O operation is performed on the stream, or else by then it might be too late.
The next argument, buf allows you to make your own buffer space (using malloc() or just a char array) to use for buffering. If you don’t care to do this, just set buf to NULL.
Now we get to the real meat of the function: mode allows you to choose what kind of buffering you want to use on this stream. Set it to one of the following:
| Mode | Description |
|---|---|
_IOFBF |
stream will be fully buffered. |
_IOLBF |
stream will be line buffered. |
_IONBF |
stream will be unbuffered. |
Finally, the size argument is the size of the array you passed in for buf…unless you passed NULL for buf, in which case it will resize the existing buffer to the size you specify.
Now what about this lesser function setbuf()? It’s just like calling setvbuf() with some specific parameters, except setbuf() doesn’t return a value. The following example shows the equivalency:
// these are the same:
setbuf(stream, buf);
setvbuf(stream, buf, _IOFBF, BUFSIZ); // fully buffered
// and these are the same:
setbuf(stream, NULL);
setvbuf(stream, NULL, _IONBF, BUFSIZ); // unbufferedsetvbuf() returns zero on success, and nonzero on failure. setbuf() has no return value.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
char lineBuf[1024];
fp = fopen("somefile.txt", "w");
setvbuf(fp, lineBuf, _IOLBF, 1024); // set to line buffering
fprintf(fp, "You won't see this in the file yet. ");
fprintf(fp, "But now you will because of this newline.\n");
fclose(fp);
fp = fopen("anotherfile.txt", "w");
setbuf(fp, NULL); // set to unbuffered
fprintf(fp, "You will see this in the file now.");
fclose(fp);
}printf(), fprintf(), sprintf(), snprintf()
Print a formatted string to the console or to a file
#include <stdio.h>
int printf(const char *format, ...);
int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);
int sprintf(char * restrict s, const char * restrict format, ...);
int snprintf(char * restrict s, size_t n, const char * restrict format, ...);These functions print formatted output to a variety of destinations.
| Function | Output Destination |
|---|---|
printf() |
Print to console (screen by default, typically). |
fprintf() |
Print to a file. |
sprintf() |
Print to a string. |
snprintf() |
Print to a string (safely). |
The only differences between these is are the leading parameters that you pass to them before the format string.
| Function | What you pass before format |
|---|---|
printf() |
Nothing comes before format. |
fprintf() |
Pass a FILE*. |
sprintf() |
Pass a char* to a buffer to print into. |
snprintf() |
Pass a char* to the buffer and a maximum buffer length. |
The printf() function is legendary as being one of the most flexible outputting systems ever devised. It can also get a bit freaky here or there, most notably in the format string. We’ll take it a step at a time here.
The easiest way to look at the format string is that it will print everything in the string as-is, unless a character has a percent sign (%) in front of it. That’s when the magic happens: the next argument in the printf() argument list is printed in the way described by the percent code. These percent codes are called format specifiers.
Here are the most common format specifiers.
| Specifier | Description |
|---|---|
%d |
Print the next argument as a signed decimal number, like 3490. The argument printed this way should be an int, or something that gets promoted to int. |
%f |
Print the next argument as a signed floating point number, like 3.14159. The argument printed this way should be a double, or something that gets promoted to a double. |
%c |
Print the next argument as a character, like 'B'. The argument printed this way should be a char variant. |
%s |
Print the next argument as a string, like "Did you remember your mittens?". The argument printed this way should be a char* or char[]. |
%% |
No arguments are converted, and a plain old run-of-the-mill percent sign is printed. This is how you print a ‘%’ using printf(). |
So those are the basics. I’ll give you some more of the format specifiers in a bit, but let’s get some more breadth before then. There’s actually a lot more that you can specify in there after the percent sign.
For one thing, you can put a field width in there—this is a number that tells printf() how many spaces to put on one side or the other of the value you’re printing. That helps you line things up in nice columns. If the number is negative, the result becomes left-justified instead of right-justified. Example:
printf("%10d", x); /* prints X on the right side of the 10-space field */
printf("%-10d", x); /* prints X on the left side of the 10-space field */If you don’t know the field width in advance, you can use a little kung-foo to get it from the argument list just before the argument itself. Do this by placing your seat and tray tables in the fully upright position. The seatbelt is fastened by placing the—cough. I seem to have been doing way too much flying lately. Ignoring that useless fact completely, you can specify a dynamic field width by putting a * in for the width. If you are not willing or able to perform this task, please notify a flight attendant and we will reseat you.
int width = 12;
int value = 3490;
printf("%*d\n", width, value);You can also put a “0” in front of the number if you want it to be padded with zeros:
int x = 17;
printf("%05d", x); /* "00017" */When it comes to floating point, you can also specify how many decimal places to print by making a field width of the form “x.y” where x is the field width (you can leave this off if you want it to be just wide enough) and y is the number of digits past the decimal point to print:
float f = 3.1415926535;
printf("%.2f", f); /* "3.14" */
printf("%7.3f", f); /* " 3.141" <-- 7 spaces across */Ok, those above are definitely the most common uses of printf(), but let’s get total coverage.
Technically, the layout of the format specifier is these things in this order:
%, followed by…int or double.d, f, etc.In short, the whole format specifier is laid out like this:
%[flags][fieldwidth][.precision][lengthmodifier]conversionspecifierWhat could be easier?
Let’s talk conversion specifiers first. Each of the following specifies what type it can print, but it can also print anything that gets promoted to that type. For example, %d can print int, short, and char.
| Conversion Specifier | Description |
|---|---|
d |
Print an int argument as a decimal number. |
i |
Identical to d. |
o |
Print an unsigned int in octal (base 8). |
u |
Print an unsigned int in decimal. |
x |
Print an unsigned int in hexadecimal with lowercase letters. |
X |
Print an unsigned int in hexadecimal with uppercase letters. |
f |
Print a double in decimal notation. Infinity is printed as infinity or inf, and NaN is printed as nan, any of which could have a leading minus sign. |
F |
Same as f, except it prints out INFINITY, INF, or NAN in all caps. |
e |
Print a number in scientific notation, e.g. 1.234e56. Does infinity and NaN like f. |
E |
Just like e, except prints the exponent E (and infinity and NaN) in uppercase. |
g |
Print small numbers like f and large numbers like e. See note below. |
G |
Print small numbers like F and large numbers like E. See note below. |
a |
Print a double in hexadecimal form 0xh.hhhhpd where h is a lowercase hex digit and d is a decimal exponent of 2. Infinity and NaN in the form of f. More below. |
A |
Like a except everything’s uppercase. |
c |
Convert int argument to unsigned char and print as a character. |
s |
Print a string starting at the given char*. |
p |
Print a void* out as a number, probably the numeric address, possibly in hex. |
n |
Store the number of characters written so far in the given int*. Doesn’t print anything. See below. |
% |
Print a literal percent sign. |
%a and %AWhen printing floating point numbers in hex form, there is one number before the decimal point, and the rest of are out to the precision.
double pi = 3.14159265358979;
printf("%.3a\n", pi); // 0x1.922p+1C can choose the leading number in such a way to ensure subsequent digits align to 4-bit boundaries.
If the precision is left out and the macro FLT_RADIX is a power of 2, enough precision is used to represent the number exactly. If FLT_RADIX is not a power of two, enough precision is used to be able to tell any two floating values apart.
If the precision is 0 and the # flag isn’t specified, the decimal point is omitted.
%g and %GThe gist of this is to use scientific notation when the number gets too “extreme”, and regular decimal notation otherwise.
The exact behavior for whether these print as %f or %e depends on a number of factors:
If the number’s exponent is greater than or equal to -4 and the precision is greater than the exponent, we use %f. In this case, the precision is converted according to \(p=p-(x+1)\), where \(p\) is the specified precision and \(x\) is the exponent.
Otherwise we use %e, and the precision becomes \(p-1\).
Trailing zeros in the decimal portion are removed. And if there are none left, the decimal point is removed, too. All this unless the # flag is specified.
%nThis specifier is cool and different, and rarely needed. It doesn’t actually print anything, but stores the number of characters printed so far in the next pointer argument in the list.
int numChars;
float a = 3.14159;
int b = 3490;
printf("%f %d%n\n", a, b, &numChars);
printf("The above line contains %d characters.\n", numChars);The above example will print out the values of a and b, and then store the number of characters printed so far into the variable numChars. The next call to printf() prints out that result.
3.141590 3490
The above line contains 13 charactersYou can stick a length modifier in front of each of the conversion specifiers, if you want. most of those format specifiers work on int or double types, but what if you want larger or smaller types? That’s what these are good for.
For example, you could print out a long long int with the ll modifier:
long long int x = 3490;
printf("%lld\n", x); // 3490| Length Modifier | Conversion Specifier | Description |
|---|---|---|
hh |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert argument to char (signed or unsigned as appropriate) before printing. |
h |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert argument to short int (signed or unsigned as appropriate) before printing. |
l |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Argument is a long int (signed or unsigned as appropriate). |
ll |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Argument is a long long int (signed or unsigned as appropriate). |
j |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Argument is a intmax_t or uintmax_t (as appropriate). |
z |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Argument is a size_t. |
t |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Argument is a ptrdiff_t. |
L |
a, A, e, E, f, F, g, G |
Argument is a long double. |
l |
c |
Argument is in a wint_t, a wide character. |
l |
s |
Argument is in a wchar_t*, a wide character string. |
hh |
n |
Store result in signed char* argument. |
h |
n |
Store result in short int* argument. |
l |
n |
Store result in long int* argument. |
ll |
n |
Store result in long long int* argument. |
j |
n |
Store result in intmax_t* argument. |
z |
n |
Store result in size_t* argument. |
t |
n |
Store result in ptrdiff_t* argument. |
In front of the length modifier, you can put a precision, which generally means how many decimal places you want on your floating point numbers.
To do this, you put a decimal point (.) and the decimal places afterward.
For example, we could print π rounded to two decimal places like this:
double pi = 3.14159265358979;
printf("%.2f\n", pi); // 3.14| Conversion Specifier | Precision Value Meaning |
|---|---|
d, i, o, u, x, X |
For integer types, minimum number of digits (will pad with leading zeros) |
a, e, f, A, E, F |
For floating types, the precision is the number of digits past the decimal. |
g, G |
For floating types, the precision is the number of significant digits printed. |
s |
The maximum number of bytes (not multibyte characters!) to be written. |
If no number is specified in the precision after the decimal point, the precision is zero.
If an * is specified after the decimal, something amazing happens! It means the int argument to printf() before the number to be printed holds the precision. You can use this if you don’t know the precision at compile time.
int precision;
double pi = 3.14159265358979;
printf("Enter precision: "); fflush(stdout);
scanf("%d", &precision);
printf("%.*f\n", precision, pi);Which gives:
Enter precision: 4
3.1416In front of the optional precision, you can indicate a field width. This is a decimal number that indicates how wide the region should be in which the argument is printed. The region is padding with leading (or trailing) spaces to make sure it’s wide enough.
If the field width specified is too small to hold the output, it is ignored.
As a preview, you can give a negative field width to justify the item the other direction.
So let’s print a number in a field of width 10. We’ll put some angle brackets around it so we can see the padding spaces in the output.
printf("<<%10d>>\n", 3490); // right justified
printf("<<%-10d>>\n", 3490); // left justified<< 3490>>
<<3490 >>Like with the precision, you can use an asterisk (*) as the field width
int field_width;
int val = 3490;
printf("Enter field_width: "); fflush(stdout);
scanf("%d", &field_width);
printf("<<%*d>>\n", field_width, val);Before the field width, you can put some optional flags that further control the output of the subsequent fields. We just saw that the - flag can be used to left- or right-justify fields. But there are plenty more!
| Flag | Description |
|---|---|
- |
For a field width, left justify in the field (right is default). |
+ |
If the number is signed, always prefix a + or - on the front. |
| [SPACE] | If the number is signed, prefix a space for positive, or a - for negative. |
0 |
Pad the right-justified field with leading zeros instead of leading spaces. |
# |
Print using an alternate form. See below. |
For example, we could pad a hexadecimal number with leading zeros to a field width of 8 with:
printf("%08x\n", 0x1234); // 00001234The # “alternate form” result depends on the conversion specifier.
| Conversion Specifier | Alternate Form (#) Meaning |
|---|---|
o |
Increase precision of a non-zero number just enough to get one leading 0 on the octal number. |
x |
Prefix a non-zero number with 0x. |
X |
Same as x, except capital 0X. |
a, e, f |
Always print a decimal point, even if nothing follows it. |
A, E, F |
Identical to a, e, f. |
g, G |
Always print a decimal point, even if nothing follows it, and keep trailing zeros. |
sprintf() and snprintf() DetailsBoth sprintf() and snprintf() have the quality that if you pass in NULL as the buffer, nothing is written—but you can still check the return value to see how many characters would have been written.
snprintf() always terminates the string with a NUL character. So if you try to write out more than the maximum specified characters, the universe ends.
Just kidding. If you do, snprintf() will write \(n-1\) characters so that it has enough room to write the terminator at the end.
Returns the number of characters outputted, or a negative number on error.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int a = 100;
float b = 2.717;
char *c = "beej!";
char d = 'X';
int e = 5;
printf("%d\n", a); /* "100" */
printf("%f\n", b); /* "2.717000" */
printf("%s\n", c); /* "beej!" */
printf("%c\n", d); /* "X" */
printf("110%%\n"); /* "110%" */
printf("%10d\n", a); /* " 100" */
printf("%-10d\n", a); /* "100 " */
printf("%*d\n", e, a); /* " 100" */
printf("%.2f\n", b); /* "2.72" */
printf("%hhd\n", d); /* "88" <-- ASCII code for 'X' */
printf("%5d %5.2f %c\n", a, b, d); /* " 100 2.72 X" */
}scanf(), fscanf(), sscanf()
Read formatted string, character, or numeric data from the console or from a file
#include <stdio.h>
int scanf(const char *format, ...);
int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...);
int sscanf(const char * restrict s, const char * restrict format, ...);These functions read formatted output from a variety of sources.
| Function | Input Source |
|---|---|
scanf() |
Read from the console (keyboard by default, typically). |
fscanf() |
Read from a file. |
sscanf() |
Read from a string. |
The only differences between these is are the leading parameters that you pass to them before the format string.
| Function | What you pass before format |
|---|---|
scanf() |
Nothing comes before format. |
fscanf() |
Pass a FILE*. |
sscanf() |
Pass a char* to a buffer to read from. |
The scanf() family of functions reads data from the console or from a FILE stream, parses it, and stores the results away in variables you provide in the argument list.
The format string is very similar to that in printf() in that you can tell it to read a "%d", for instance for an int. But it also has additional capabilities, most notably that it can eat up other characters in the input that you specify in the format string.
But let’s start simple, and look at the most basic usage first before plunging into the depths of the function. We’ll start by reading an int from the keyboard:
int a;
scanf("%d", &a);scanf() obviously needs a pointer to the variable if it is going to change the variable itself, so we use the address-of operator to get the pointer.
In this case, scanf() walks down the format string, finds a “%d”, and then knows it needs to read an integer and store it in the next variable in the argument list, a.
Here are some of the other format specifiers you can put in the format string:
| Format Specifier | Description |
|---|---|
%d |
Reads an integer to be stored in an int. This integer can be signed. |
%u |
Reads an integer to be stored in an unsigned int. |
%f |
Reads a floating point number, to be stored in a float. |
%s |
Reads a string up to the first whitespace character. |
%c |
Reads a char. |
And that’s the end of the story!
Ha! Just kidding. If you’ve just arrived from the printf() page, you know there’s a near-infinite amount of additional material.
scanf() will move along the format string matching any characters you include.
For example, you could read a hyphenated date like so:
scanf("%u-%u-%u", &yyyy, &mm, &dd);In that case, scanf() will attempt to consume an unsigned decimal number, then a hyphen, then another unsigned number, then another hypen, then another unsigned number.
If it fails to match at any point (e.g. the user entered “foo”), scanf() will bail without consuming the offending characters.
And it will return the number of variables successfully converted. In the example above, if the user entered a valid string, scanf() would return 3, one for each variable successfully read.
scanf()I (and the C FAQ and a lot of people) recommend against using scanf() to read directly from the keyboard. It’s too easy for it to stop consuming characters when the user enters some bad data.
If you have data in a file and you’re confident it’s in good shape, fscanf() can be really useful.
But in the case of the keyboard or file, you can always use fgets() to read a complete line into a buffer, and then use sscanf() to scan things out of the buffer. This gives you the best of both worlds.
sscanf()A while back, a third-party programmer rose to fame for figuring out how to cut GTA Online load times by 70%48.
What they’d discovered was that the implementation of sscanf() first effectively calls strlen()… so even if you’re just using sscanf() to peel the first few characters off the string, it still runs all the way out to the end of the string first.
On small strings, no big deal, but on large strings with repeated calls (which is what was happening in GTA) it got sloooooooooowwwww…
So if you’re just converting a string to a number, consider atoi(), atof(), or the strtol() and strtod() families of functions, instead.
(The programmer collected a $10,000 bug bounty for the effort.)
Let’s check out what a scanf()
And here are some more codes, except these don’t tend to be used as often. You, of course, may use them as often as you wish!
First, the format string. Like we mentioned, it can hold ordinary characters as well as % format specifiers. And whitespace characters.
Whitespace characters have a special role: a whitespace character will cause scanf() to consume as many whitespace characters as it can up to the next non-whitespace character. You can use this to ignore all leading or trailing whitespace.
Also, all format specifiers except for s, c, and [ automatically consume leading whitespace.
But I know what you’re thinking: the meat of this function is in the format specifiers. What do those look like?
These consist of the following, in sequence:
% sign* to suppress assignment—more laterd or f indicating the type to readLet’s start with the best and last: the conversion specifier.
This is the part of the format specifier that tells us what type of variable scanf() should be reading into, like %d or %f.
| Conversion Specifier | Description |
|---|---|
d |
Matches a decimal int. Can have a leading sign. |
i |
Like d, except will handle it if you put a leading 0x (hex) or 0 (octal) on the number. |
o |
Matches an octal (base 8) unsigned int. Leading zeros are ignored. |
u |
Matches a decimal unsigned int. |
x |
Matches a hex (base 16) unsigned int. |
f |
Match a floating point number (or scientific notation, or anything strtod() can handle). |
c |
Match a char, or mutiple chars if a field width is given. |
s |
Match a sequence of non-whitespace chars. |
[ |
Match a sequence of characters from a set. The set ends with ]. More below. |
p |
Match a pointer, the opposite of %p for printf(). |
n |
Store the number of characters written so far in the given int*. Doesn’t consume anything. |
% |
Match a literal percent sign. |
All of the following are equivalent to the f specifier: a, e, g, A, E, F, G.
And capital X is equivalent to lowercase x.
%[] Conversion SpecifierThis is about the weirdest format specifier there is. It allows you to specify a set of characters (the scanset) to be stored away (likely in an array of chars). Conversion stops when a character that is not in the set is matched.
For example, %[0-9] means “match all numbers zero through nine.” And %[AD-G34] means “match A, D through G, 3, or 4”.
Now, to convolute matters, you can tell scanf() to match characters that are not in the set by putting a caret (^) directly after the %[ and following it with the set, like this: %[^A-C], which means “match all characters that are not A through C.”
To match a close square bracket, make it the first character in the set, like this: %[]A-C] or %[^]A-C]. (I added the “A-C” just so it was clear that the “]” was first in the set.)
To match a hyphen, make it the last character in the set, e.g. to match A-through-C or hyphen: %[A-C-].
So if we wanted to match all letters except “%”, “^”, “]”, “B”, “C”, “D”, “E”, and “-”, we could use this format string: %[^]%^B-E-].
Got it? Now we can go onto the next func—no wait! There’s more! Yes, still more to know about scanf(). Does it never end? Try to imagine how I feel writing about it!
So you know that “%d” stores into an int. But how do you store into a long, short, or double?
Well, like in printf(), you can add a modifier before the type specifier to tell scanf() that you have a longer or shorter type. The following is a table of the possible modifiers:
| Length Modifier | Conversion Specifier | Description |
|---|---|---|
hh |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert input to char (signed or unsigned as appropriate) before printing. |
h |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert input to short int (signed or unsigned as appropriate) before printing. |
l |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert input to long int (signed or unsigned as appropriate). |
ll |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert input to long long int (signed or unsigned as appropriate). |
j |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert input to intmax_t or uintmax_t (as appropriate). |
z |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert input to size_t. |
t |
d, i, o, u, x, X |
Convert input to ptrdiff_t. |
L |
a, A, e, E, f, F, g, G |
Convert input to long double. |
l |
c,s,[ |
Convert input to wchar_t, a wide character. |
l |
s |
Argument is in a wchar_t*, a wide character string. |
hh |
n |
Store result in signed char* argument. |
h |
n |
Store result in short int* argument. |
l |
n |
Store result in long int* argument. |
ll |
n |
Store result in long long int* argument. |
j |
n |
Store result in intmax_t* argument. |
z |
n |
Store result in size_t* argument. |
t |
n |
Store result in ptrdiff_t* argument. |
The field width generally allows you to specify a maximum number of characters to consume. If the thing you’re trying to match is shorter than the field width, that input will stop being processed before the field width is reached.
So a string will stop being consumed when whitespace is found, even if fewer than the field width characters are matched.
And a float will stop being consumed at the end of the number, even if fewer characters than the field width are matched.
But %c is an interesting one—it doesn’t stop consuming characters on anything. So it’ll go exactly to the field width. (Or 1 character if no field width is given.)
*If you put an * in the format specifier, it tells scanf() do to the conversion specified, but not store it anywhere. It simply discards the data as it reads it. This is what you use if you want scanf() to eat some data but you don’t want to store it anywhere; you don’t give scanf() an argument for this conversion.
// Read 3 ints, but discard the middle one
scanf("%d %*d %d", &int1, &int3);scanf() returns the number of items assigned into variables. Since assignment into variables stops when given invalid input for a certain format specifier, this can tell you if you’ve input all your data correctly.
Also, scanf() returns EOF on end-of-file.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int a;
long int b;
unsigned int c;
float d;
double e;
long double f;
char s[100];
scanf("%d", &a); // store an int
scanf(" %d", &a); // eat any whitespace, then store an int
scanf("%s", s); // store a string
scanf("%Lf", &f); // store a long double
// store an unsigned, read all whitespace, then store a long int:
scanf("%u %ld", &c, &b);
// store an int, read whitespace, read "blendo", read whitespace,
// and store a float:
scanf("%d blendo %f", &a, &d);
// read all whitespace, then store all characters up to a newline
scanf(" %[^\n]", s);
// store a float, read (and ignore) an int, then store a double:
scanf("%f %*d %lf", &d, &e);
// store 10 characters:
scanf("%10c", s);
}sscanf(), vscanf(), vsscanf(), vfscanf()
vprintf(), vfprintf(), vsprintf(), vsnprintf()
printf() variants using variable argument lists (va_list)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
int vprintf(const char * restrict format, va_list arg);
int vfprintf(FILE * restrict stream, const char * restrict format,
va_list arg);
int vsprintf(char * restrict s, const char * restrict format, va_list arg);
int vsnprintf(char * restrict s, size_t n, const char * restrict format,
va_list arg);These are just like the printf() variants except instead of taking an actual variable number of arguments, they take a fixed number—the last of which is a va_list that refers to the variable arguments.
Like with printf(), the different variants send output different places.
| Function | Output Destination |
|---|---|
vprintf() |
Print to console (screen by default, typically). |
vfprintf() |
Print to a file. |
vsprintf() |
Print to a string. |
vsnprintf() |
Print to a string (safely). |
Both vsprintf() and vsnprintf() have the quality that if you pass in NULL as the buffer, nothing is written—but you can still check the return value to see how many characters would have been written.
If you try to write out more than the maximum number of characters, vsnprintf() will graciously write only \(n-1\) characters so that it has enough room to write the terminator at the end.
As for why in the heck would you ever want to do this, the most common reason is to create your own specialized versions of printf()-type functions, piggybacking on all that printf() functionality goodness.
See the example for an example, predictably.
vprintf() and vfprintf() return the number of characters printed, or a negative value on error.
vsprintf() returns the number of characters printed to the buffer, not counting the NUL terminator, or a negative value if an error occurred.
vnsprintf() returns the number of characters printed to the buffer. Or the number that would have been printed if the buffer had been large enough.
In this example, we make our own version of printf() called logger() that timestamps output. Notice how the calls to logger() have all the bells and whistles of printf().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <time.h>
int logger(char *format, ...)
{
va_list va;
time_t now_secs = time(NULL);
struct tm *now = gmtime(&now_secs);
// Output timestamp in format "YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss : "
printf("%04d-%02d-%02d %02d:%02d:%02d : ",
now->tm_year + 1900, now->tm_mon + 1, now->tm_mday,
now->tm_hour, now->tm_min, now->tm_sec);
va_start(va, format);
int result = vprintf(format, va);
va_end(va);
printf("\n");
return result;
}
int main(void)
{
int x = 12;
float y = 3.2;
logger("Hello!");
logger("x = %d and y = %.2f", x, y);
}Output:
2021-03-30 04:25:49 : Hello!
2021-03-30 04:25:49 : x = 12 and y = 3.20vscanf(), vfscanf(), vsscanf()
scanf() variants using variable argument lists (va_list)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
int vscanf(const char * restrict format, va_list arg);
int vfscanf(FILE * restrict stream, const char * restrict format,
va_list arg);
int vsscanf(const char * restrict s, const char * restrict format,
va_list arg);These are just like the scanf() variants except instead of taking an actual variable number of arguments, they take a fixed number—the last of which is a va_list that refers to the variable arguments.
| Function | Input Source |
|---|---|
vscanf() |
Read from the console (keyboard by default, typically). |
vfscanf() |
Read from a file. |
vsscanf() |
Read from a string. |
Like with the vprintf() functions, this would be a good way to add additional functionality that took advantage of the power scanf() has to offer.
Returns the number of items successfully scanned, or EOF on end-of-file or error.
I have to admit I was wracking my brain to think of when you’d ever want to use this. The best example I could find was one on Stack Overflow49 that error-checks the return value from scanf() against the expected. A variant of that is shown below.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <assert.h>
int error_check_scanf(int expected_count, char *format, ...)
{
va_list va;
va_start(va, format);
int count = vscanf(format, va);
va_end(va);
// This line will crash the program if the condition is false:
assert(count == expected_count);
return count;
}
int main(void)
{
int a, b;
float c;
error_check_scanf(3, "%d, %d/%f", &a, &b, &c);
error_check_scanf(2, "%d", &a);
}getc(), fgetc(), getchar()
Get a single character from the console or from a file
#include <stdio.h>
int getc(FILE *stream);
int fgetc(FILE *stream);
int getchar(void);All of these functions in one way or another, read a single character from the console or from a FILE. The differences are fairly minor, and here are the descriptions:
getc() returns a character from the specified FILE. From a usage standpoint, it’s equivalent to the same fgetc() call, and fgetc() is a little more common to see. Only the implementation of the two functions differs.
fgetc() returns a character from the specified FILE. From a usage standpoint, it’s equivalent to the same getc() call, except that fgetc() is a little more common to see. Only the implementation of the two functions differs.
Yes, I cheated and used cut-n-paste to do that last paragraph.
getchar() returns a character from stdin. In fact, it’s the same as calling getc(stdin).
All three functions return the unsigned char that they read, except it’s cast to an int.
If end-of-file or an error is encountered, all three functions return EOF.
This example reads all the characters from a file, outputting only the letter ’b’s it finds..
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
int c;
fp = fopen("spoon.txt", "r"); // error check this!
// this while-statement assigns into c, and then checks against EOF:
while((c = fgetc(fp)) != EOF) {
if (c == 'b') {
putchar(c);
}
}
putchar('\n');
fclose(fp);
}gets(), fgets()
Read a string from console or file
#include <stdio.h>
char *fgets(char *s, int size, FILE *stream);
char *gets(char *s);These are functions that will retrieve a newline-terminated string from the console or a file. In other normal words, it reads a line of text. The behavior is slightly different, and, as such, so is the usage. For instance, here is the usage of gets():
Don’t use gets(). In fact, as of C11, it ceases to exist! This is one of the rare cases of a function being removed from the standard.
Admittedly, rationale would be useful, yes? For one thing, gets() doesn’t allow you to specify the length of the buffer to store the string in. This would allow people to keep entering data past the end of your buffer, and believe me, this would be Bad News.
And that’s what the size parameter in fgets() is for. fgets() will read at most size-1 characters and then stick a NUL terminator on after that.
I was going to add another reason, but that’s basically the primary and only reason not to use gets(). As you might suspect, fgets() allows you to specify a maximum string length.
One difference here between the two functions: gets() will devour and throw away the newline at the end of the line, while fgets() will store it at the end of your string (space permitting).
Here’s an example of using fgets() from the console, making it behave more like gets() (with the exception of the newline inclusion):
char s[100];
gets(s); // don't use this--read a line (from stdin)
fgets(s, sizeof(s), stdin); // read a line from stdinIn this case, the sizeof() operator gives us the total size of the array in bytes, and since a char is a byte, it conveniently gives us the total size of the array.
Of course, like I keep saying, the string returned from fgets() probably has a newline at the end that you might not want. You can write a short function to chop the newline off—in fact, let’s just roll that into our own version of gets()
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
char *ngets(char *s, int size)
{
char *rv = fgets(s, size, stdin);
if (rv == NULL)
return NULL;
char *p = strchr(s, '\n'); // Find a newline
if (p != NULL) // if there's a newline
*p = '\0'; // truncate the string there
return s;
}So, in summary, use fgets() to read a line of text from the keyboard or a file, and don’t use gets().
Both gets() and fgets() return a pointer to the string passed.
On error or end-of-file, the functions return NULL.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
char s[100];
gets(s); // read from standard input (don't use this--use fgets()!)
fgets(s, sizeof s, stdin); // read 100 bytes from standard input
fp = fopen("spoon.txt", "r"); // (you should error-check this)
fgets(s, 100, fp); // read 100 bytes from the file datafile.dat
fclose(fp);
fgets(s, 20, stdin); // read a maximum of 20 bytes from stdin
}getc(), fgetc(), getchar(), puts(), fputs(), ungetc()
putc(), fputc(), putchar()
Write a single character to the console or to a file
#include <stdio.h>
int putc(int c, FILE *stream);
int fputc(int c, FILE *stream);
int putchar(int c);All three functions output a single character, either to the console or to a FILE.
putc() takes a character argument, and outputs it to the specified FILE. fputc() does exactly the same thing, and differs from putc() in implementation only. Most people use fputc().
putchar() writes the character to the console, and is the same as calling putc(c, stdout).
All three functions return the character written on success, or EOF on error.
Print the alphabet:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
char i;
for(i = 'A'; i <= 'Z'; i++)
putchar(i);
putchar('\n'); // put a newline at the end to make it pretty
}puts(), fputs()Write a string to the console or to a file
#include <stdio.h>
int puts(const char *s);
int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream);Both these functions output a NUL-terminated string. puts() outputs to the console, while fputs() allows you to specify the file for output.
Both functions return non-negative on success, or EOF on error.
Read strings from the console and save them in a file:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
char s[100];
fp = fopen("somefile.txt", "w"); // error check this!
while(fgets(s, sizeof(s), stdin) != NULL) { // read a string
fputs(s, fp); // write it to the file we opened
}
fclose(fp);
}ungetc()Pushes a character back into the input stream
#include <stdio.h>
int ungetc(int c, FILE *stream);You know how getc() reads the next character from a file stream? Well, this is the opposite of that—it pushes a character back into the file stream so that it will show up again on the very next read from the stream, as if you’d never gotten it from getc() in the first place.
Why, in the name of all that is holy would you want to do that? Perhaps you have a stream of data that you’re reading a character at a time, and you won’t know to stop reading until you get a certain character, but you want to be able to read that character again later. You can read the character, see that it’s what you’re supposed to stop on, and then ungetc() it so it’ll show up on the next read.
Yeah, that doesn’t happen very often, but there we are.
Here’s the catch: the standard only guarantees that you’ll be able to push back one character. Some implementations might allow you to push back more, but there’s really no way to tell and still be portable.
On success, ungetc() returns the character you passed to it. On failure, it returns EOF.
This example reads a piece of punctuation, then everything after it up to the next piece of punctuation. It returns the leading punctuation, and stores the rest in a string.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <ctype.h>
int read_punctstring(FILE *fp, char *s)
{
int origpunct, c;
origpunct = fgetc(fp);
if (origpunct == EOF) // return EOF on end-of-file
return EOF;
while (c = fgetc(fp), !ispunct(c) && c != EOF)
*s++ = c; // save it in the string
*s = '\0'; // nul-terminate the string
// if we read punctuation last, ungetc it so we can fgetc it next
// time:
if (ispunct(c))
ungetc(c, fp);
return origpunct;
}
int main(void)
{
char s[128];
char c;
while((c = read_punctstring(stdin, s)) != EOF) {
printf("%c: %s\n", c, s);
}
}Sample Input:
!foo#bar*bazSample output:
!: foo
#: bar
*: bazfread()Read binary data from a file
#include <stdio.h>
size_t fread(void *p, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream);You might remember that you can call fopen() with the “b” flag in the open mode string to open the file in “binary” mode. Files open in not-binary (ASCII or text mode) can be read using standard character-oriented calls like fgetc() or fgets(). Files open in binary mode are typically read using the fread() function.
All this function does is says, “Hey, read this many things where each thing is a certain number of bytes, and store the whole mess of them in memory starting at this pointer.”
This can be very useful, believe me, when you want to do something like store 20 ints in a file.
But wait—can’t you use fprintf() with the “%d” format specifier to save the ints to a text file and store them that way? Yes, sure. That has the advantage that a human can open the file and read the numbers. It has the disadvantage that it’s slower to convert the numbers from ints to text and that the numbers are likely to take more space in the file. (Remember, an int is likely 4 bytes, but the string “12345678” is 8 bytes.)
So storing the binary data can certainly be more compact and faster to read.
This function returns the number of items successfully read. If all requested items are read, the return value will be equal to that of the parameter nmemb. If EOF occurs, the return value will be zero.
To make you confused, it will also return zero if there’s an error. You can use the functions feof() or ferror() to tell which one really happened.
Read 10 numbers from a file and store them in an array:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int i;
int n[10]
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("numbers.dat", "rb");
fread(n, sizeof(int), 10, fp); // read 10 ints
fclose(fp);
// print them out:
for(i = 0; i < 10; i++)
printf("n[%d] == %d\n", i, n[i]);
}fopen(), fwrite(), feof(), ferror()
fwrite()Write binary data to a file
#include <stdio.h>
size_t fwrite(const void *p, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream);This is the counterpart to the fread() function. It writes blocks of binary data to disk. For a description of what this means, see the entry for fread().
fwrite() returns the number of items successfully written, which should hopefully be nmemb that you passed in. It’ll return zero on error.
Save 10 random numbers to a file:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
int i;
int n[10];
FILE *fp;
// populate the array with random numbers:
for(i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
n[i] = rand();
printf("n[%d] = %d\n", i, n[i]);
}
// save the random numbers (10 ints) to the file
fp = fopen("numbers.dat", "wb");
fwrite(n, sizeof(int), 10, fp); // write 10 ints
fclose(fp);
}fgetpos(), fsetpos()
Get the current position in a file, or set the current position in a file. Just like ftell() and fseek() for most systems
#include <stdio.h>
int fgetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos);
int fsetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos);These functions are just like ftell() and fseek(), except instead of counting in bytes, they use an opaque data structure to hold positional information about the file. (Opaque, in this case, means you’re not supposed to know what the data type is made up of.)
On virtually every system (and certainly every system that I know of), people don’t use these functions, using ftell() and fseek() instead. These functions exist just in case your system can’t remember file positions as a simple byte offset.
Since the pos variable is opaque, you have to assign to it using the fgetpos() call itself. Then you save the value for later and use it to reset the position using fsetpos().
Both functions return zero on success, and -1 on error.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
char s[100];
fpos_t pos;
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("spoon.txt", "r");
fgets(s, sizeof(s), fp); // read a line from the file
printf("%s", s);
fgetpos(fp, &pos); // save the position after the read
fgets(s, sizeof(s), fp); // read another line from the file
printf("%s", s);
fsetpos(fp, &pos); // now restore the position to where we saved
fgets(s, sizeof(s), fp); // read the earlier line again
printf("%s", s);
fclose(fp);
}fseek(), rewind()
Position the file pointer in anticipition of the next read or write
#include <stdio.h>
int fseek(FILE *stream, long offset, int whence);
void rewind(FILE *stream);When doing reads and writes to a file, the OS keeps track of where you are in the file using a counter generically known as the file pointer. You can reposition the file pointer to a different point in the file using the fseek() call. Think of it as a way to randomly access you file.
The first argument is the file in question, obviously. offset argument is the position that you want to seek to, and whence is what that offset is relative to.
Of course, you probably like to think of the offset as being from the beginning of the file. I mean, “Seek to position 3490, that should be 3490 bytes from the beginning of the file.” Well, it can be, but it doesn’t have to be. Imagine the power you’re wielding here. Try to command your enthusiasm.
You can set the value of whence to one of three things:
whence |
Description |
|---|---|
SEEK_SET |
offset is relative to the beginning of the file. This is probably what you had in mind anyway, and is the most commonly used value for whence. |
SEEK_CUR |
offset is relative to the current file pointer position. So, in effect, you can say, “Move to my current position plus 30 bytes,” or, “move to my current position minus 20 bytes.” |
SEEK_END |
offset is relative to the end of the file. Just like SEEK_SET except from the other end of the file. Be sure to use negative values for offset if you want to back up from the end of the file, instead of going past the end into oblivion. |
Speaking of seeking off the end of the file, can you do it? Sure thing. In fact, you can seek way off the end and then write a character; the file will be expanded to a size big enough to hold a bunch of zeros way out to that character.
Now that the complicated function is out of the way, what’s this rewind() that I briefly mentioned? It repositions the file pointer at the beginning of the file:
fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_SET); // same as rewind()
rewind(fp); // same as fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_SET)For fseek(), on success zero is returned; -1 is returned on failure.
The call to rewind() never fails.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("spoon.txt", "r");
fseek(fp, 100, SEEK_SET); // seek to the 100th byte of the file
printf("100: %c\n", fgetc(fp));
fseek(fp, -31, SEEK_CUR); // seek backward 30 bytes from the current pos
printf("31 back: %c\n", fgetc(fp));
fseek(fp, -12, SEEK_END); // seek to the 10th byte before the end of file
printf("12 from end: %c\n", fgetc(fp));
fseek(fp, 0, SEEK_SET); // seek to the beginning of the file
rewind(fp); // seek to the beginning of the file, too
printf("Beginning: %c\n", fgetc(fp));
fclose(fp);
}ftell()Tells you where a particular file is about to read from or write to
#include <stdio.h>
long ftell(FILE *stream);This function is the opposite of fseek(). It tells you where in the file the next file operation will occur relative to the beginning of the file.
It’s useful if you want to remember where you are in the file, fseek() somewhere else, and then come back later. You can take the return value from ftell() and feed it back into fseek() (with whence parameter set to SEEK_SET) when you want to return to your previous position.
Returns the current offset in the file, or -1 on error.
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
char c[6];
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("spoon.txt", "r");
long pos;
// seek ahead 10 bytes:
fseek(fp, 10, SEEK_SET);
// store the current position in variable "pos":
pos = ftell(fp);
// Read some bytes
fread(c, sizeof c - 1, 1, fp);
c[5] = '\0';
printf("Read: \"%s\"\n", c);
// and return to the starting position, stored in "pos":
fseek(fp, pos, SEEK_SET);
// Read the same bytes again
fread(c, sizeof c - 1, 1, fp);
c[5] = '\0';
printf("Read: \"%s\"\n", c);
fclose(fp);
}fseek(), rewind(), fgetpos(), fsetpos()
feof(), ferror(), clearerr()
Determine if a file has reached end-of-file or if an error has occurred
#include <stdio.h>
int feof(FILE *stream);
int ferror(FILE *stream);
void clearerr(FILE *stream);Each FILE* that you use to read and write data from and to a file contains flags that the system sets when certain events occur. If you get an error, it sets the error flag; if you reach the end of the file during a read, it sets the EOF flag. Pretty simple really.
The functions feof() and ferror() give you a simple way to test these flags: they’ll return non-zero (true) if they’re set.
Once the flags are set for a particular stream, they stay that way until you call clearerr() to clear them.
feof() and ferror() return non-zero (true) if the file has reached EOF or there has been an error, respectively.
Read binary data, checking for EOF or error:
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void)
{
int a;
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("numbers.dat", "r");
// read single ints at a time, stopping on EOF or error:
while(fread(&a, sizeof(int), 1, fp), !feof(fp) && !ferror(fp)) {
printf("Read %d\n", a);
}
if (feof(fp))
printf("End of file was reached.\n");
if (ferror(fp))
printf("An error occurred.\n");
fclose(fp);
}perror()Print the last error message to stderr
#include <stdio.h>
#include <errno.h> // only if you want to directly use the "errno" var
void perror(const char *s);Many functions, when they encounter an error condition for whatever reason, will set a global variable called errno (in <errno.h>) for you. errno is just an interger representing a unique error.
But to you, the user, some number isn’t generally very useful. For this reason, you can call perror() after an error occurs to print what error has actually happened in a nice human-readable string.
And to help you along, you can pass a parameter, s, that will be prepended to the error string for you.
One more clever trick you can do is check the value of the errno (you have to include errno.h to see it) for specific errors and have your code do different things. Perhaps you want to ignore certain errors but not others, for instance.
The standard only defines three values for errno, but your system undoubtedly defines more. The three that are defined are:
errno |
Description |
|---|---|
EDOM |
Math operation outside domain. |
EILSEQ |
Invalid sequence in multibyte to wide character encoding. |
ERANGE |
Result of operation doesn’t fit in specified type. |
The catch is that different systems define different values for errno, so it’s not very portable beyond the above 3. The good news is that at least the values are largely portable between Unix-like systems, at least.
Returns nothing at all! Sorry!
fseek() returns -1 on error, and sets errno, so let’s use it. Seeking on stdin makes no sense, so it should generate an error:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <errno.h> // must include this to see "errno" in this example
int main(void)
{
if (fseek(stdin, 10L, SEEK_SET) < 0)
perror("fseek");
fclose(stdin); // stop using this stream
if (fseek(stdin, 20L, SEEK_CUR) < 0) {
// specifically check errno to see what kind of
// error happened...this works on Linux, but your
// mileage may vary on other systems!
if (errno == EBADF) {
perror("fseek again, EBADF");
} else {
perror("fseek again");
}
}
}And the output is:
fseek: Illegal seek
fseek again, EBADF: Bad file descriptor<stdlib.h> Standard Library FunctionsSome of the following functions have variants that handle different types: atoi(), strtod(), strtol(), abs(), and div(). Only a single one is listed here for brevity.
| Function | Description |
|---|---|
_Exit() |
Exit the currently-running program and don’t look back |
abort() |
Abruptly end program execution |
abs() |
Compute the absolute value of an integer |
aligned_alloc() |
Allocate specifically-aligned memory |
at_quick_exit() |
Set up handlers to run when the program quickly exits |
atexit() |
Set up handlers to run when the program exits |
atof() |
Convert a string to a floating point value |
atoi() |
Convert an integer in a string into a integer type |
bsearch() |
Binary Search (maybe) an array of objects |
calloc() |
Allocate and clear memory for arbitrary use |
div() |
Compute the quotient and remainder of two numbers |
exit() |
Exit the currently-running program |
free() |
Free a memory region |
getenv() |
Get the value of an environment variable |
malloc() |
Allocate memory for arbitrary use |
mblen() |
Return the number of bytes in a multibyte character |
mbstowcs() |
Convert a multibyte string to a wide character string |
mbtowc() |
Convert a multibyte character to a wide character |
qsort() |
Quicksort (maybe) some data |
quick_exit() |
Exit the currently-running program quickly |
rand() |
Return a pseudorandom number |
realloc() |
Resize a previously allocated stretch of memory |
srand() |
Seed the built-in pseudorandom number generator |
strtod() |
Convert a string to a floating point number |
strtol() |
Convert a string to an integer |
system() |
Run an external program |
wcstombs() |
Convert a wide character string to a multibyte string |
wctomb() |
Convert a wide character to a multibyte character |
The <stdlib.h> header has all kinds of—dare I say—miscellaneous functions bundled into it. This functionality includes:
So, you know… a little of everything.
<stdlib.h> Types and MacrosA couple new types and macros are introduced, though some of these might also be defined elsewhere:
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
size_t |
Returned from sizeof and used elsewhere |
wchar_t |
For wide character operations |
div_t |
For the div() function |
ldiv_t |
For the ldiv() function |
lldiv_t |
for the lldiv() function |
And some macros:
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
NULL |
Our good pointer friend |
EXIT_SUCCESS |
Good exit status when things go well |
EXIT_FAILURE |
Good exit status when things go poorly |
RAND_MAX |
The maximum value that can be returned by the rand() function |
MB_CUR_MAX |
Maximum number of bytes in a multibyte character in the current locale |
And there you have it. Just a lot of fun, useful functions in here. Let’s check ’em out!
atof()Convert a string to a floating point value
#include <stdlib.h>
double atof(const char *nptr);This stood for “ASCII-To-Floating” back in the day50, but no one would dare to use such coarse language now.
But the gist is the same: we’re going to convert a string with numbers and (optionally) a decimal point into a floating point value. Leading whitespace is ignored, and translation stops at the first invalid character.
If the result doesn’t fit in a double, behavior is undefined.
It generally works as if you’d called strtod():
strtod(nptr, NULL)So check out that reference page for more info.
In fact, strtod() is just better and you should probably use that.
Returns the string converted to a double.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
double x = atof("3.141593");
printf("%f\n", x); // 3.141593
}atoi(), atol(), atoll()
Convert an integer in a string into a integer type
#include <stdlib.h>
int atoi(const char *nptr);
long int atol(const char *nptr);
long long int atoll(const char *nptr);Back in the day, atoi() stood for “ASCII-To_Integer”51 but now the spec makes no mention of that.
These functions take a string with a number in them and convert it to an integer of the specified return type. Leading whitespace is ignored. Translation stops at the first invalid character.
If the result doesn’t fit in the return type, behavior is undefined.
It generally works as if you’d called strtol() family of functions:
atoi(nptr) // is basically the same as...
(int)strtol(nptr, NULL, 10)
atol(nptr) // is basically the same as...
strtol(nptr, NULL, 10)
atoll(nptr) // is basically the same as...
strtoll(nptr, NULL, 10)Again, the strtol() functions are generally better, so I recommend them instead of these.
Returns an integer result corresponding to the return type.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
int x = atoi("3490");
printf("%d\n", x); // 3490
}strtod(), strtof(), strtold()
Convert a string to a floating point number
#include <stdlib.h>
double strtod(const char * restrict nptr, char ** restrict endptr);
float strtof(const char * restrict nptr, char ** restrict endptr);
long double strtold(const char * restrict nptr, char ** restrict endptr);These are some neat functions that convert strings to floating point numbers (or even NaN or Infinity) and provide some error checking, besides.
Firstly, leading whitespace is skipped.
Then the functions attempt to convert characters into the floating point result. Finally, when an invalid character (or NUL character) is reached, they set endptr to point to the invalid character.
Set endptr to NULL if you don’t care about where the first invalid character is.
If you didn’t set endptr to NULL, it will point to a NUL character if the translation didn’t find any bad characters. That is:
if (*endptr == '\0') {
printf("What a perfectly-formed number!\n");
} else {
printf("I found badness in your number: \"%s\"\n", endptr);
}But guess what! You can also translate strings into special values, like NaN and Infinity!
If nptr points to a string containing INF or INFINITY (upper or lowercase), the value for Infinity will be returned.
If nptr points to a string containing NAN, then (a quiet, non-signalling) NaN will be returned. You can tag the NAN with a sequence of characters from the set 0-9, a-z, A-Z, and _ by enclosing them in parens:
NAN(foobar_3490)What your compiler does with this is implementation-defined, but it can be used to specify different kinds of NaN.
You can also specify a number in hexadecimal with a power-of-two exponent (\(2^x\)) if you lead with 0x (or 0X). For the exponent, use a p followed by a base 10 exponent. (You can’t use e because that’s a valid hex digit!)
Example:
0xabc.123p15Which computes to \(0xabc.123\times2^{15}\).
You can put in FLT_DECIMAL_DIG, DBL_DECIMAL_DIG, or LDBL_DECIMAL_DIG digits and get a correctly-rounded result for the type.
Returns the converted number. If there was no number, returns 0. endptr is set to point to the first invalid character, or the NUL terminator if all characters were consumed.
If there’s an overflow, HUGE_VAL, HUGE_VALF, or HUGE_VALL is returned, signed like the input, and errno is set to ERANGE.
If there’s an underflow, it returns the smallest number closest to zero with the input sign. errno may be set to ERANGE.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
char *inp = " 123.4567beej";
char *badchar;
double val = strtod(inp, &badchar);
printf("Converted string to %f\n", val);
printf("Encountered bad characters: %s\n", badchar);
val = strtod("987.654321beej", NULL);
printf("Ignoring bad chars for result: %f\n", val);
val = strtod("11.2233", &badchar);
if (*badchar == '\0')
printf("No bad chars: %f\n", val);
else
printf("Found bad chars: %f, %s\n", val, badchar);
}Output:
Converted string to 123.456700
Encountered bad characters: beej
Ignoring bad chars: 987.654321
No bad chars: 11.223300strtol(), strtoll(), strtoul(), strtoull()
Convert a string to an integer
#include <stdlib.h>
long int strtol(const char * restrict nptr,
char ** restrict endptr, int base);
long long int strtoll(const char * restrict nptr,
char ** restrict endptr, int base);
unsigned long int strtoul(const char * restrict nptr,
char ** restrict endptr, int base);
unsigned long long int strtoull(const char * restrict nptr,
char ** restrict endptr, int base);These convert a string to an integer like atoi(), but they have a few more bells and whistles.
Most notable, they can tell you where conversion started going wrong, i.e. where invalid characters, if any, appear. Leading spaces are ignored. A + or - sign may precede the number.
The basic idea is that if things go well, these functions will return the integer values contained in the strings. And if you pass in the char** typed endptr, it’ll set it to point at the NUL at the end of the string.
If things don’t go well, they’ll set endptr to point at the first character where things have gone awry. That is, if you’re converting a value 103z2! in base 10, they’ll send endptr to point at the z because that’s the first non-numeric character.
You can pass in NULL for endptr if you don’t care to do any of that kind of error checking.
Wait—did I just say we could set the number base for the conversion? Yes! Yes, I did. Now number bases52 are out of scope for this document, but certainly some of the more well-known are binary (base 2), octal (base 8), decimal (base 10), and hexadecimal (base 16).
You can specify the number base for the conversion as the third parameter. Bases from 2 to 36 are supported, with case-insensitive digits running from 0 to Z.
If you specify a base of 0, the function will make an effort to determine it. It’ll default to base 10 except for a couple cases:
0, it will be octal (base 8)0x or 0X, it will be hex (base 16)The locale might affect the behavior of these functions.
Returns the converted value.
endptr, if not NULL is set to the first invalid character, or to the beginning of the string if no conversion was performed, or to the string terminal NUL if all characters were valid.
If there’s overflow, one of these values will be returned: LONG_MIN, LONG_MAX, LLONG_MIN, LLONG_MAX, ULONG_MAX, ULLONG_MAX. And errno is set to ERANGE.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
// All output in decimal (base 10)
printf("%ld\n", strtol("123", NULL, 0)); // 123
printf("%ld\n", strtol("123", NULL, 10)); // 123
printf("%ld\n", strtol("101010", NULL, 2)); // binary, 42
printf("%ld\n", strtol("123", NULL, 8)); // octal, 83
printf("%ld\n", strtol("123", NULL, 16)); // hex, 291
printf("%ld\n", strtol("0123", NULL, 0)); // octal, 83
printf("%ld\n", strtol("0x123", NULL, 0)); // hex, 291
char *badchar;
long int x = strtol(" 1234beej", &badchar, 0);
printf("Value is %ld\n", x); // Value is 1234
printf("Bad chars at \"%s\"\n", badchar); // Bad chars at "beej"
}Output:
123
123
42
83
291
83
291
Value is 1234
Bad chars at "beej"atoi(), strtod(), setlocale(), strtoimax(), strtoumax()
rand()Return a pseudorandom number
#include <stdlib.h>
int rand(void);This gives us back a pseudorandom number in the range 0 to RAND_MAX, inclusive. (RAND_MAX will be at least \(32767\).)
If you want to force this to a certain range, the classic way to do this is to force it with the modulo operator %, although this introduces biases53 if RAND_MAX+1 is not a multiple of the number you’re modding by. Dealing with this is out of scope for this guide.
If you want to to make a floating point number between 0 and 1 inclusive, you can divide the result by RAND_MAX. Or RAND_MAX+1 if you don’t want to include 1. But of course, there are out-of-scope problems with this, as well54.
In short, rand() is a great way to get potentially poor random numbers with ease. Probably good enough for the game you’re writing.
The spec elaborates:
There are no guarantees as to the quality of the random sequence produced and some implementations are known to produce sequences with distressingly non-random low-order bits. Applications with particular requirements should use a generator that is known to be sufficient for their needs.
Your system probably has a good random number generator on it if you need a stronger source. Linux users have getrandom(), for example, and Windows has CryptGenRandom().
For other more demanding random number work, you might find a library like the GNU Scientific Library55 of use.
With most implementations, the numbers produced by rand() will be the same from run to run. To get around this, you need to start it off in a different place by passing a seed into the random number generator. You can do this with srand().
Returns a random number in the range 0 to RAND_MAX, inclusive.
Note that all of these examples don’t produce perfectly uniform distributions. But good enough for the untrained eye, and really common in general use when mediocre random number quality is acceptable.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("RAND_MAX = %d\n", RAND_MAX);
printf("0 to 9: %d\n", rand() % 10);
printf("10 to 44: %d\n", rand() % 35 + 10);
printf("0 to 0.99999: %f\n", rand() / ((float)RAND_MAX + 1));
printf("10.5 to 15.7: %f\n", 10.5 + 5.2 * rand() / (float)RAND_MAX);
}Output on my system:
RAND_MAX = 2147483647
0 to 9: 3
10 to 44: 21
0 to 0.99999: 0.783099
10.5 to 15.7: 14.651888Example of seeding the RNG with the time:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <time.h>
int main(void)
{
// time(NULL) very likely returns the number of seconds since
// January 1, 1970:
srand(time(NULL));
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
printf("%d\n", rand());
}srand()Seed the built-in pseudorandom number generator
#include <stdlib.h>
void srand(unsigned int seed);The dirty little secret of pseudorandom number generation is that they’re completely deterministic. There’s nothing random about them. They just look random.
If you use rand() and run your program several times, you might notice something fishy: they produce the same random numbers over and over again.
To mix it up, we need to give the pseudorandom number generator a new “starting point”, if you will. We call that the seed. It’s just a number, but it is used as the basic for subsequent number generation. Give a different seed, and you’ll get a different sequence of random numbers. Give the same seed, and you’ll get the same sequence of random numbers corresponding to it56.
So if you call srand(3490) before you start generating numbers with rand(), you’ll get the same sequence every time. srand(37) would also give you the same sequence every time, but it would be a different sequence than the one you got with srand(3490).
But if you can’t hardcode the seed (because that would give you the same sequence every time), how are you supposed to do this?
It’s really common to use the number of seconds since January 1, 1970 (this date is known as the Unix epoch57) to seed the generator. This sounds pretty arbitrary except for the fact that it’s exactly the value most implementations return from the library call time(NULL)58.
We’ll do that in the example.
If you don’t call srand(), it’s as if you called srand(1).
Returns nothing!
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <time.h> // for the time() call
int main(void)
{
srand(time(NULL));
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
printf("%d\n", rand() % 32);
}Output:
4
20
22
14
9Output from a subsequent run:
19
0
31
31
24aligned_alloc()Allocate specifically-aligned memory
#include <stdlib.h>
void *aligned_alloc(size_t alignment, size_t size);Maybe you wanted malloc() or calloc() instead of this. But if you’re sure you don’t, read on!
Normally you don’t have to think about this, since malloc() and realloc() both provide memory regions that are suitably aligned59 for use with any data type.
But if you need a more specific alignment, you can specify it with this function.
When you’re done using the memory region, be sure to free it with a call to free().
Don’t pass in 0 for the size. It probably won’t do anything you want.
In case you’re wondering, all dynamically-allocated memory is automatically freed by the system when the program ends. That said, it’s considered to be Good Form to explicitly free() everything you allocate. This way other programmers don’t think you were being sloppy.
Returns a pointer to the newly-allocated memory, aligned as specified. Returns NULL if something goes wrong.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdint.h>
int main(void)
{
int *p = aligned_alloc(256, 10 * sizeof(int));
// Just for fun, let's convert to intptr_t and mod with 256
// to make sure we're actually aligned on a 256-byte boundary.
//
// This is probably some kind of implementation-defined
// behavior, but I'll bet it works.
intptr_t ip = (intptr_t)p;
printf("%ld\n", ip % 256); // 0!
// Free it up
free(p);
}calloc(), malloc()
Allocate memory for arbitrary use
#include <stdlib.h>
void *calloc(size_t nmemb, size_t size);
void *malloc(size_t size);Both of these functions allocate memory for general-purpose use. It will be aligned such that it’s useable for storing any data type.
malloc() allocates exactly the specified number of bytes of memory in a contiguous block. The memory might be full of garbage data. (You can clear it with memset(), if you wish.)
calloc() is different in that it allocates space for nmemb objects of size bytes each. (You can do the same with malloc(), but you have to do the multiplication yourself.)
calloc() has an additional feature: it clears all the memory to 0.
So if you’re planning to zero the memory anyway, calloc() is probably the way to go. If you’re not, you can avoid that overhead by calling malloc().
When you’re done using the memory region, free it with a call to free().
Don’t pass in 0 for the size. It probably won’t do anything you want.
In case you’re wondering, all dynamically-allocated memory is automatically freed by the system when the program ends. That said, it’s considered to be Good Form to explicitly free() everything you allocate. This way other programmers don’t think you were being sloppy.
Both functions return a pointer to the shiny, newly-allocated memory. Or NULL if something’s gone awry.
Comparison of malloc() and calloc() for allocating 5 ints:
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
// Allocate space for 5 ints
int *p = malloc(5 * sizeof(int));
p[0] = 12;
p[1] = 30;
// Allocate space for 5 ints
// (Also clear that memory to 0)
int *q = calloc(5, sizeof(int));
q[0] = 12;
q[1] = 30;
// All done
free(p);
free(q);
}free()Free a memory region
#include <stdlib.h>
void free(void *ptr);You know that pointer you got back from malloc(), calloc(), or aligned_alloc()? You pass that pointer to free() to free the memory associated with it.
If you don’t do this, the memory will stay allocated FOREVER AND EVER! (Well, until your program exits, anyway.)
Fun fact: free(NULL) does nothing. You can safely call that. Sometimes it’s convenient.
Don’t free() a pointer that’s already been free()d. Don’t free() a pointer that you didn’t get back from one of the allocation functions. It would be Bad60.
Returns nothing!
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
// Allocate space for 5 ints
int *p = malloc(5 * sizeof(int));
p[0] = 12;
p[1] = 30;
// Free that space
free(p);
}malloc(), calloc(), aligned_alloc()
realloc()Resize a previously allocated stretch of memory
#include <stdlib.h>
void *realloc(void *ptr, size_t size);This takes a pointer to some memory previously allocated with malloc() or calloc() and resizes it to the new size.
If the new size is smaller than the old size, any data larger than the new size is discarded.
If the new size is larger than the old size, the new larger part is uninitialized. (You can clear it with memset().)
Important note: the memory might move! If you resize, the system might need to relocate the memory to a larger continguous chunk. If this happens, realloc() will copy the old data to the new location for you.
Because of this, it’s important to save the returned value to your pointer to update it to the new location if things move. (Also, be sure to error-check so that you don’t overwrite your old pointer with NULL, leaking the memory.)
You can also relloc() memory allocated with aligned_alloc(), but it will potentially lose its alignment if the block is moved.
Returns a pointer to the resized memory region. This might be equivalent to the ptr passed in, or it might be some other location.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
// Allocate space for 5 ints
int *p = malloc(5 * sizeof(int));
p[0] = 12;
p[1] = 30;
// Reallocate for 10 bytes
int *new_p = realloc(p, 10 * sizeof(int));
if (new_p == NULL) {
printf("Error reallocing\n");
} else {
p = new_p; // It's good; let's keep it
p[7] = 99;
}
// All done
free(p);
}abort()Abruptly end program execution
#include <stdlib.h>
_Noreturn void abort(void);This ends program execution abnormally and immediately. Use this in rare, unexpected circumstances.
Open streams might not be flushed. Temporary files created might not be removed. Exit handlers are not called.
A non-zero exit status is returned to the environment.
On some systems, abort() might dump core61, but this is outside the scope of the spec.
You can cause the equivalent of an abort() by calling raise(SIGABRT), but I don’t know why you’d do that.
The only portable way to stop an abort() call midway is to use signal() to catch SIGABRT and then exit() in the signal handler.
This function never returns.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
int bad_thing = 1;
if (bad_thing) {
printf("This should never have happened!\n");
fflush(stdout); // Make sure the message goes out
abort();
}
}On my system, this outputs:
This should never have happened!
zsh: abort (core dumped) ./fooatexit(), at_quick_exit()
Set up handlers to run when the program exits
#include <stdlib.h>
int atexit(void (*func)(void));
int at_quick_exit(void (*func)(void));When the program does a normal exit with exit() or returns from main(), it looks for previously-registered handlers to call on the way out. These handlers are registered with the atexit() call.
Think of it like, “Hey, when you’re about to exit, do these extra things.”
For the quick_exit() call, you can use the at_quick_exit() function to register handlers for that62. There’s no crossover in handlers from exit() to quick_exit(), i.e. for a call to one, none of the other’s handlers will fire.
You can register multiple handlers to fire—at least 32 handlers are supported by both exit() and quick_exit().
The argument func to the functions looks a little weird—it’s a pointer to a function to call. Basically just put the function name to call in there (without parentheses after). See the example, below.
If you call atexit() from inside your atexit() handler (or equivalent in your at_quick_exit() handler), it’s unspecified if it will get called. So get them all registered before you exit.
When exiting, the functions will be called in the reverse order they were registered.
These functions return 0 on success, or nonzero on failure.
atexit():
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void exit_handler_1(void)
{
printf("Exit handler 1 called!\n");
}
void exit_handler_2(void)
{
printf("Exit handler 2 called!\n");
}
int main(void)
{
atexit(exit_handler_1);
atexit(exit_handler_2);
exit(0);
}For the output:
Exit handler 2 called!
Exit handler 1 called!And a similar example with quick_exit():
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
void exit_handler_1(void)
{
printf("Exit handler 1 called!\n");
}
void exit_handler_2(void)
{
printf("Exit handler 2 called!\n");
}
int main(void)
{
at_quick_exit(exit_handler_1);
at_quick_exit(exit_handler_2);
quick_exit(0);
}exit(), quick_exit(), _Exit()
Exit the currently-running program
#include <stdlib.h>
_Noreturn void exit(int status);
_Noreturn void quick_exit(int status);
_Noreturn void _Exit(int status);All these functions cause the program to exit, with various levels of cleanup performed.
exit() does the most cleanup and is the most normal exit.
quick_exit() is the second most.
_Exit() unceremoniously drops everything and ragequits on the spot.
Calling either of exit() or quick_exit() causes their respective atexit() or at_quick_exit() handlers to be called in the reverse order in which they were registered.
exit() will flush all streams and delete all temporary files.
quick_exit() or _Exit() might not perform that nicety.
_Exit() doesn’t call any of the at-exit handlers, either.
For all functions, the exit status is returned to the environment.
Defined exit statuses are:
| Status | Description |
|---|---|
EXIT_SUCCESS |
Typically returned when good things happen |
0 |
Same as EXIT_SUCCESS |
EXIT_FAILURE |
Oh noes! Definitely failure! |
| Any positive value | Generally indicates another failure of some kind |
OS X note: quick_exit() is not supported.
None of these functions ever return.
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
int contrived_exit_type = 1;
switch(contrived_exit_type) {
case 1:
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
case 2:
// Not supported in OS X
quick_exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
case 3:
_Exit(2);
}
}getenv()Get the value of an environment variable
#include <stdlib.h>
char *getenv(const char *name);The environment often provides variables that are set before the program run that you can access at runtime.
Of course the exact details are system dependent, but these variables are key/value pairs, and you can get the value by passing the key to getenv() as the name parameter.
You’re not allowed to overwrite the string that’s returned.
This is pretty limited in the standard, but your OS often provides better functionality.
Returns a pointer to the environment variable value, or NULL if the variable doesn’t exist.
Output (truncated in my case):
PATH is /usr/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/home/beej/.cargo/bin [...]system()Run an external program
#include <stdlib.h>
int system(const char *string);This will run an external program and then return to the caller.
The manner in which it runs the program is system-defined, but typically you can pass something to it just like you’d run on the command line, searching the PATH, etc.
Not all systems have this capability, but you can test for it by passing NULL to system() and seeing if it returns 0 (no command processor is available) or non-zero (a command processor is available! Yay!)
If you’re getting user input and passing it to the system() call, be extremely careful to escape all special shell characters (everything that’s not alphanumeric) with a backslash to keep a villain from running something you don’t want them to.
If NULL is passed, returns nonzero if a command processor is available (i.e. system() will work at all).
Otherwise returns an implementation-defined value.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("Here's a directory listing:\n\n");
system("ls -l"); // Run this command and return
printf("\nAll done!\n");
}Output:
Here's a directory listing:
total 92
drwxr-xr-x 3 beej beej 4096 Oct 14 21:38 bin
drwxr-xr-x 2 beej beej 4096 Dec 20 20:07 examples
-rwxr-xr-x 1 beej beej 16656 Feb 23 21:49 foo
-rw-rw-rw- 1 beej beej 155 Feb 23 21:49 foo.c
-rw-r--r-- 1 beej beej 1350 Jan 27 22:11 Makefile
-rw-r--r-- 1 beej beej 4644 Jan 18 09:12 README.md
drwxr-xr-x 3 beej beej 4096 Feb 23 20:21 src
drwxr-xr-x 6 beej beej 4096 Feb 21 20:24 stage
drwxr-xr-x 2 beej beej 4096 Sep 27 20:54 translations
drwxr-xr-x 2 beej beej 4096 Sep 27 20:54 website
All done!bsearch()Binary Search (maybe) an array of objects
#include <stdlib.h>
void *bsearch(const void *key, const void *base,
size_t nmemb, size_t size,
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));This crazy-looking function searches an array for a value.
It probably is a binary search or some fast, efficient search. But the spec doesn’t really say.
However, the array must be sorted! So binary search seems likely.
key is a pointer to the value to find.base is a pointer to the start of the array—the array must be sorted!nmemb is the number of elements in the array.size is the sizeof each element in the array.compar is a pointer to a function that will compare the key against other values.The comparison function takes the key as the first argument and the value to compare against as the second. It should return a negative number if the key is less than the value, 0 if the key equals the value, and a positive number if the key is greater than the value.
This is commonly computed by taking the difference between the key and the value to be compared. If subtraction is supported.
The return value from the strcmp() function can be used for comparing strings.
Again, the array must be sorted according to the order of the comparison function before running bsearch(). Luckily for you, you can just call qsort() with the same comparison function to get this done.
It’s a general-purpose function—it’ll search any type of array for anything. The catch is you have to write the comparison function.
And that’s not as scary as it looks. Jump down to the example
The function returns a pointer to the found value, or NULL if it can’t be found.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int compar(const void *key, const void *value)
{
const int *k = key, *v = value; // Need ints, not voids
return *k - *v;
}
int main(void)
{
int a[9] = {2, 6, 9, 12, 13, 18, 20, 32, 47};
int *r, key;
key = 12; // 12 is in there
r = bsearch(&key, a, 9, sizeof(int), compar);
printf("Found %d\n", *r);
key = 30; // Won't find a 30
r = bsearch(&key, a, 9, sizeof(int), compar);
if (r == NULL)
printf("Didn't find 30\n");
// Searching with an unnamed key, pointer to 32
r = bsearch(&(int){32}, a, 9, sizeof(int), compar);
printf("Found %d\n", *r); // Found it
}Output:
Found 12
Didn't find 30
Found 32qsort()Quicksort (maybe) some data
#include <stdlib.h>
void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size,
int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));This function will quicksort (or some other sort, probably speedy) an array of data in-place63.
Like bsearch(), it’s data-agnostic. Any data for which you can define a relative ordering can be sorted, whether ints, structs, or anything else.
Also like bsearch(), you have to give a comparison function to do the actual compare.
base is a pointer to the start of the array to be sorted.nmemb is the number of elements in the array.size is the sizeof each element.compar is a pointer to the comparison function.The comparison function takes pointers to two elements of the array as arguments and compares them. It should return a negative number if the first argument is less than the second, 0 if they are equal, and a positive number if the first argument is greater than the second.
This is commonly computed by taking the difference between the first argument and the second. If subtraction is supported.
The return value from the strcmp() function can provide sort order for strings.
If you have to sort a struct, just subtract the specific field you want to sort by.
This comparison function can be used by bsearch() to do searches after the list is sorted.
To reverse the sort, subtract the second argument from the first, i.e. negate the return value from compar().
Returns nothing!
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int compar(const void *elem0, const void *elem1)
{
const int *x = elem0, *y = elem1; // Need ints, not voids
if (*x > *y) return 1;
if (*x < *y) return -1;
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
int a[9] = {14, 2, 3, 17, 10, 8, 6, 1, 13};
// Sort the list
qsort(a, 9, sizeof(int), compar);
// Print sorted list
for (int i = 0; i < 9; i++)
printf("%d ", a[i]);
putchar('\n');
// Use the same compar() function to binary search
// for 17 (passed in as an unnamed object)
int *r = bsearch(&(int){17}, a, 9, sizeof(int), compar);
printf("Found %d!\n", *r);
}Output:
1 2 3 6 8 10 13 14 17
Found 17!abs(), labs(), llabs()
Compute the absolute value of an integer
#include <stdlib.h>
int abs(int j);
long int labs(long int j);
long long int llabs(long long int j);Compute the absolute value of j. If you don’t remember, that’s how far from zero j is.
In other words, if j is negative, return it as a positive. If it’s positive, return it as a positive. Always be positive. Enjoy life.
If the result cannot be represented, the behavior is undefined. Be especially aware of the upper half of unsigned numbers.
Returns the absolute value of j, \(|j|\).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("|-2| = %d\n", abs(-2));
printf("|4| = %d\n", abs(4));
}Output:
|-2| = 2
|4| = 4div(), ldiv(), lldiv()
Compute the quotient and remainder of two numbers
#include <stdlib.h>
div_t div(int numer, int denom);
ldiv_t ldiv(long int numer, long int denom);
lldiv_t lldiv(long long int numer, long long int denom);These functions get you the quotient and remainder of a pair of numbers in one go.
They return a structure that has two fields, quot, and rem, the types of which match types of numer and denom. Note how each function returns a different variant of div_t.
These div_t variants are equivalent to the following:
typedef struct {
int quot, rem;
} div_t;
typedef struct {
long int quot, rem;
} ldiv_t;
typedef struct {
long long int quot, rem;
} lldiv_t;Why use these instead of the division operator?
The C99 Rationale says:
Because C89 had implementation-defined semantics for division of signed integers when negative operands were involved,
divandldiv, andlldivin C99, were invented to provide well-specified semantics for signed integer division and remainder operations. The semantics were adopted to be the same as in Fortran. Since these functions return both the quotient and the remainder, they also serve as a convenient way of efficiently modeling underlying hardware that computes both results as part of the same operation. Table 7.2 summarizes the semantics of these functions.
Indeed, K&R2 (C89) says:
The direction of truncation for
/and the sign of the result for%are machine-dependent for negative operands […]
The Rationale then goes on to spell out what the signs of the quotient and remainder will be given the signs of a numerator and denominator when using the div() functions:
numer |
denom |
quot |
rem |
|---|---|---|---|
| \(+\) | \(+\) | \(+\) | \(+\) |
| \(-\) | \(+\) | \(-\) | \(-\) |
| \(+\) | \(-\) | \(-\) | \(+\) |
| \(-\) | \(-\) | \(+\) | \(-\) |
A div_t, ldiv_t, or lldiv_t structure with the quot and rem fields loaded with the quotient and remainder of the operation of numer/denom.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(void)
{
div_t d = div(64, -7);
printf("64 / -7 = %d\n", d.quot);
printf("64 %% -7 = %d\n", d.rem);
}Output:
64 / -7 = -9
64 % -7 = 1mblen()Return the number of bytes in a multibyte character
#include <stdlib.h>
int mblen(const char *s, size_t n);If you have a multibyte character in a string, this will tell you how many bytes long it is.
n is the maximum number of bytes mblen() will scan before giving up.
If s is a NULL pointer, tests if this encoding has state dependency, as noted in the return value, below. It also resets the state, if there is one.
The behavior of this function is influenced by the locale.
Returns the number of bytes used to encode this character, or -1 if there is no valid multibyte character in the next n bytes.
Or, if s is NULL, returns true if this encoding has state dependency.
For the example, I used my extended character set to put Unicode characters in the source. If this doesn’t work for you, use the \uXXXX escape.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <locale.h>
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
printf("State dependency: %d\n", mblen(NULL, 0));
printf("Bytes for €: %d\n", mblen("€", 5));
printf("Bytes for \u00e9: %d\n", mblen("\u00e9", 5)); // \u00e9 == é
printf("Bytes for &: %d\n", mblen("&", 5));
}Output (in my case, the encoding is UTF-8, but your mileage may vary):
State dependency: 0
Bytes for €: 3
Bytes for é: 2
Bytes for &: 1mbtowc(), mbstowcs()), setlocale()
mbtowc()Convert a multibyte character to a wide character
#include <stdlib.h>
int mbtowc(wchar_t * restrict pwc, const char * restrict s, size_t n);If you have a multibyte character, this function will convert it to a wide character and stored at the address pointed to by pwc. Up to n bytes of the multibyte character will be analyzed.
If pwc is NULL, the resulting character will not be stored. (Useful for just getting the return value.)
If s is a NULL pointer, tests if this encoding has state dependency, as noted in the return value, below. It also resets the state, if there is one.
The behavior of this function is influenced by the locale.
Returns the number of bytes used in the encoded wide character, or -1 if there is no valid multibyte character in the next n bytes.
Returns 0 if s points to the NUL character.
Or, if s is NULL, returns true if this encoding has state dependency.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <locale.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
printf("State dependency: %d\n", mbtowc(NULL, NULL, 0));
wchar_t wc;
int bytes;
bytes = mbtowc(&wc, "€", 5);
printf("L'%lc' takes %d bytes as multibyte char '€'\n", wc, bytes);
}Output on my system:
State dependency: 0
L'€' takes 3 bytes as multibyte char '€'mblen(), mbstowcs(), wcstombs(), setlocale()
wctomb()Convert a wide character to a multibyte character
#include <stdlib.h>
int wctomb(char *s, wchar_t wc);If you have your hands on a wide character, you can use this to make it multibyte.
The wide character wc is stored as a multibyte character in the string pointed to by s. The buffer s points to should be at least MB_CUR_MAX characters long. Note that MB_CUR_MAX changes with locale.
If wc is a NUL wide character, a NUL is stored in s after the bytes needed to reset the shift state (if any).
If s is a NULL pointer, tests if this encoding has state dependency, as noted in the return value, below. It also resets the state, if there is one.
The behavior of this function is influenced by the locale.
Returns the number of bytes used in the encoded multibyte character, or -1 if wc does not correspond to any valid multibyte character.
Or, if s is NULL, returns true if this encoding has state dependency.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <locale.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
printf("State dependency: %d\n", mbtowc(NULL, NULL, 0));
int bytes;
char mb[MB_CUR_MAX + 1];
bytes = wctomb(mb, L'€');
mb[bytes] = '\0';
printf("L'€' takes %d bytes as multibyte char '%s'\n", bytes, mb);
}Output on my system:
State dependency: 0
L'€' takes 3 bytes as multibyte char '€'mbtowc(), mbstowcs(), wcstombs(), setlocale()
mbstowcs()Convert a multibyte string to a wide character string
#include <stdlib.h>
size_t mbstowcs(wchar_t * restrict pwcs, const char * restrict s, size_t n);If you have a multibyte string (AKA a regular string), you can convert it wto a wide character string with this function.
At most n wide characters are written to the destination pwcs from the source s.
A NUL character is stored as a wide NUL character.
Non-portable POSIX extension: if you’re using a POSIX-complaint library, this function allows pwcs to be NULL if you’re only interested in the return value. Most notably, this will give you the number of characters in a multibyte string (as opposed to strlen() which counts the bytes.)
Returns the number of wide characters written to the destination pwcs.
If an invalid multibyte character was found, returns (size_t)(-1).
If the return value is n, it means the result was not NUL-terminated.
This source uses an extended character set. If your compiler doesn’t support it, you’ll have to replace them with \u escapes.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <locale.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
wchar_t wcs[128];
char *s = "€200 for this spoon?"; // 20 characters
size_t char_count, byte_count;
char_count = mbstowcs(wcs, s, 128);
byte_count = strlen(s);
printf("Wide string: L\"%ls\"\n", wcs);
printf("Char count : %zu\n", char_count); // 20
printf("Byte count : %zu\n\n", byte_count); // 22 on my system
// POSIX Extension that allows you to pass NULL for
// the destination so you can just use the return
// value (which is the character count of the string,
// if no errors have occurred)
s = "§¶°±π€•"; // 7 characters
char_count = mbstowcs(NULL, s, 0); // POSIX-only, nonportable
byte_count = strlen(s);
printf("Multibyte str: \"%s\"\n", s);
printf("Char count : %zu\n", char_count); // 7
printf("Byte count : %zu\n", byte_count); // 16 on my system
}Output on my system (byte count will depend on your encoding):
Wide string: L"€200 for this spoon?"
Char count : 20
Byte count : 22
Multibyte str: "§¶°±π€•"
Char count : 7
Byte count : 16mblen(), mbtowc(), wcstombs(), setlocale()
wcstombs()Convert a wide character string to a multibyte string
#include <stdlib.h>
size_t wcstombs(char * restrict s, const wchar_t * restrict pwcs, size_t n);If you have a wide character string and you want it as multibyte string, this is the function for you!
It’ll take the wide characters pointed to by pwcs and convert them to multibyte characters stored in s. No more than n bytes will be written to s.
Non-portable POSIX extension: if you’re using a POSIX-complaint library, this function allows s to be NULL if you’re only interested in the return value. Most notably, this will give you the number of bytes needed to encode the wide characters in a multibyte string.
Returns the number of bytes written to s, or (size_t)(-1) if one of the characters can’t be encoded into a multibyte string.
If the return value is n, it means the result was not NUL-terminated.
This source uses an extended character set. If your compiler doesn’t support it, you’ll have to replace them with \u escapes.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <locale.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
char mbs[128];
wchar_t *wcs = L"€200 for this spoon?"; // 20 characters
size_t byte_count;
byte_count = wcstombs(mbs, wcs, 128);
printf("Wide string: L\"%ls\"\n", wcs);
printf("Multibyte : \"%s\"\n", mbs);
printf("Byte count : %zu\n\n", byte_count); // 22 on my system
// POSIX Extension that allows you to pass NULL for
// the destination so you can just use the return
// value (which is the character count of the string,
// if no errors have occurred)
wcs = L"§¶°±π€•"; // 7 characters
byte_count = wcstombs(NULL, wcs, 0); // POSIX-only, nonportable
printf("Wide string: L\"%ls\"\n", wcs);
printf("Byte count : %zu\n", byte_count); // 16 on my system
}Output on my system (byte count will depend on your encoding):
Wide string: L"€200 for this spoon?"
Multibyte : "€200 for this spoon?"
Byte count : 22
Wide string: L"§¶°±π€•"
Byte count : 16mblen(), wctomb(), mbstowcs(), setlocale()
<stdnoreturn.h> Macros for Non-Returning FunctionsThis header provides a macro noreturn that is a handy alias for _Noreturn.
Use this macro to indicate to the compiler that a function will never return to the caller. It’s undefined behavior if the so-marked function does return.
Here’s a usage example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdnoreturn.h>
noreturn void foo(void) // This function should never return!
{
printf("Happy days\n");
exit(1); // And it doesn't return--it exits here!
}
int main(void)
{
foo();
}That’s all there is to it.
<string.h> String Manipulation| Function | Description |
|---|---|
memchr() |
Find the first occurrence of a character in memory. |
memcmp() |
Compare two regions of memory. |
memcpy() |
Copy a region of memory to another. |
memmove() |
Move a (potentially overlapping) region of memory. |
memset() |
Set a region of memory to a value. |
strcat() |
Concatenate (join) two strings together. |
strchr() |
Find the first occurrence of a character in a string. |
strcmp() |
Compare two strings. |
strcoll() |
Compare two strings accounting for locale. |
strcpy() |
Copy a string. |
strcspn() |
Find length of a string not consisting of a set of characters. |
strerror() |
Return a human-readable error message for a given code. |
strlen() |
Return the length of a string. |
strncat() |
Concatenate (join) two strings, length-limited. |
strncmp() |
Compare two strings, length-limited. |
strncpy() |
Copy two strings, length-limited. |
strpbrk() |
Search a string for one of a set of character. |
strrchr() |
Find the last occurrence of a character in a string. |
strspn() |
Find length of a string consisting of a set of characters. |
strstr() |
Find a substring in a string. |
strtok() |
Tokenize a string. |
strxfrm() |
Prepare a string for comparison as if by strcoll(). |
As has been mentioned earlier in the guide, a string in C is a sequence of bytes in memory, terminated by a NUL character (‘\0’). The NUL at the end is important, since it lets all these string functions (and printf() and puts() and everything else that deals with a string) know where the end of the string actually is.
Fortunately, when you operate on a string using one of these many functions available to you, they add the NUL terminator on for you, so you actually rarely have to keep track of it yourself. (Sometimes you do, especially if you’re building a string from scratch a character at a time or something.)
In this section you’ll find functions for pulling substrings out of strings, concatenating strings together, getting the length of a string, and so forth and so on.
memcpy(), memmove()
Copy bytes of memory from one location to another
#include <string.h>
void *memcpy(void * restrict s1, const void * restrict s2, size_t n);
void *memmove(void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);These functions copy memory—as many bytes as you want! From source to destination!
The main difference between the two is that memcpy() cannot safely copy overlapping memory regions, whereas memmove() can.
On the one hand, I’m not sure why you’d want to ever use memcpy() instead of memmove(), but I’ll bet it’s possibly more performant.
The parameters are in a particular order: destination first, then source. I remember this order because it behaves like an “=” assignment: the destination is on the left.
Both functions return whatever you passed in for parameter s1 for your convenience.
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
char s[100] = "Goats";
char t[100];
memcpy(t, s, 6); // Copy non-overlapping memory
memmove(s + 2, s, 6); // Copy overlapping memory
}strcpy(), strncpy()
Copy a string
#include <string.h>
char *strcpy(char *dest, char *src);
char *strncpy(char *dest, char *src, size_t n);These functions copy a string from one address to another, stopping at the NUL terminator on the srcstring.
strncpy() is just like strcpy(), except only the first n characters are actually copied. Beware that if you hit the limit, n before you get a NUL terminator on the src string, your dest string won’t be NUL-terminated. Beware! BEWARE!
(If the src string has fewer than n characters, it works just like strcpy().)
You can terminate the string yourself by sticking the '\0' in there yourself:
char s[10];
char foo = "My hovercraft is full of eels."; // more than 10 chars
strncpy(s, foo, 9); // only copy 9 chars into positions 0-8
s[9] = '\0'; // position 9 gets the terminatorBoth functions return dest for your convenience, at no extra charge.
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
char *src = "hockey hockey hockey hockey hockey hockey hockey hockey";
char dest[20];
int len;
strcpy(dest, "I like "); // dest is now "I like "
len = strlen(dest);
// tricky, but let's use some pointer arithmetic and math to append
// as much of src as possible onto the end of dest, -1 on the length to
// leave room for the terminator:
strncpy(dest+len, src, sizeof(dest)-len-1);
// remember that sizeof() returns the size of the array in bytes
// and a char is a byte:
dest[sizeof(dest)-1] = '\0'; // terminate
// dest is now: v null terminator
// I like hockey hocke
// 01234567890123456789012345
}strcat(), strncat()
Concatenate two strings into a single string
#include <string.h>
int strcat(const char *dest, const char *src);
int strncat(const char *dest, const char *src, size_t n);“Concatenate”, for those not in the know, means to “stick together”. These functions take two strings, and stick them together, storing the result in the first string.
These functions don’t take the size of the first string into account when it does the concatenation. What this means in practical terms is that you can try to stick a 2 megabyte string into a 10 byte space. This will lead to unintended consequences, unless you intended to lead to unintended consequences, in which case it will lead to intended unintended consequences.
Technical banter aside, your boss and/or professor will be irate.
If you want to make sure you don’t overrun the first string, be sure to check the lengths of the strings first and use some highly technical subtraction to make sure things fit.
You can actually only concatenate the first n characters of the second string by using strncat() and specifying the maximum number of characters to copy.
Both functions return a pointer to the destination string, like most of the string-oriented functions.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
char dest[30] = "Hello";
char *src = ", World!";
char numbers[] = "12345678";
printf("dest before strcat: \"%s\"\n", dest); // "Hello"
strcat(dest, src);
printf("dest after strcat: \"%s\"\n", dest); // "Hello, world!"
strncat(dest, numbers, 3); // strcat first 3 chars of numbers
printf("dest after strncat: \"%s\"\n", dest); // "Hello, world!123"
}Notice I mixed and matched pointer and array notation there with src and numbers; this is just fine with string functions.
strcmp(), strncmp(), memcmp()
Compare two strings or memory regions and return a difference
#include <string.h>
int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2);
int strncmp(const char *s1, const char *s2, size_t n);
int memcmp(const void *s1, const void *s2, size_t n);All these functions compare chunks of bytes in memory.
strcmp() and strncmp() operate on NUL-terminated strings, whereas memcmp() will compare the number of bytes you specify, brazenly ignoring any NUL characters it finds along the way.
strcmp() compares the entire string down to the end, while strncmp() only compares the first n characters of the strings.
It’s a little funky what they return. Basically it’s a difference of the strings, so if the strings are the same, it’ll return zero (since the difference is zero). It’ll return non-zero if the strings differ; basically it will find the first mismatched character and return less-than zero if that character in s1 is less than the corresponding character in s2. It’ll return greater-than zero if that character in s1 is greater than that in s2.
So if they return 0, the comparison was equal (i.e. the difference was 0.)
These functions can be used as comparison functions for qsort() if you have an array of char*s you want to sort.
Returns zero if the strings or memory are the same, less-than zero if the first different character in s1 is less than that in s2, or greater-than zero if the first difference character in s1 is greater than than in s2.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
char *s1 = "Muffin";
char *s2 = "Muffin Sandwich";
char *s3 = "Muffin";
int r1 = strcmp("Biscuits", "Kittens");
printf("%d\n", r1); // prints < 0 since 'B' < 'K'
int r2 = strcmp("Kittens", "Biscuits");
printf("%d\n", r2); // prints > 0 since 'K' > 'B'
if (strcmp(s1, s2) == 0)
printf("This won't get printed because the strings differ\n");
if (strcmp(s1, s3) == 0)
printf("This will print because s1 and s3 are the same\n");
// this is a little weird...but if the strings are the same, it'll
// return zero, which can also be thought of as "false". Not-false
// is "true", so (!strcmp()) will be true if the strings are the
// same. yes, it's odd, but you see this all the time in the wild
// so you might as well get used to it:
if (!strcmp(s1, s3))
printf("The strings are the same!\n");
if (!strncmp(s1, s2, 6))
printf("The first 6 characters of s1 and s2 are the same\n");
}strcoll()Compare two strings accounting for locale
#include <string.h>
int strcoll(const char *s1, const char *s2);This is basically strcmp(), except that it handles accented characters better depending on the locale.
For example, my strcmp() reports that the character “é” (with accent) is greater than “f”. But that’s hardly useful for alphabetizing.
By setting the LC_COLLATE locale value (either by name or via LC_ALL), you can have strcoll() sort in a way that’s more meaningful by the current locale. For example, by having “é” appear sanely before “f”.
It’s also a lot slower than strcmp() so use it only if you have to. See strxfrm() for a potential speedup.
Like the other string comparison functions, strcoll() returns a negative value if s1 is less than s2, or a positive value if s1 is greater than s2. Or 0 if they are equal.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <locale.h>
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
// If your source character set doesn't support "é" in a string
// you can replace it with `\u00e9`, the Unicode code point
// for "é".
printf("%d\n", strcmp("é", "f")); // Reports é > f, yuck.
printf("%d\n", strcoll("é", "f")); // Reports é < f, yay!
}strxfrm()Transform a string for comparing based on locale
#include <string.h>
size_t strxfrm(char * restrict s1, const char * restrict s2, size_t n);This is a strange little function, so bear with me.
Firstly, if you haven’t done so, get familiar with strcoll() because this is closely related to that.
OK! Now that you’re back, you can think of strxfrm() as the first part of the strcoll() internals. Basically, strcoll() has to transform a string into a form that can be compared with strcmp(). And it does this with strxfrm() for both strings every time you call it.
strxform() takes string s2 and transforms it (readies it for strcmp()) storing the result in s1. It writes no more than n bytes, protecting us from terrible buffer overflows.
But hang on—there’s another mode! If you pass NULL for s1 and 0 for n, it will return the number of bytes that the transformed string would have used64. This is useful if you need to allocate some space to hold the transformed string before you strcmp() it against another.
What I’m getting at, not to be too blunt, is that strcoll() is slow compared to strcmp(). It does a lot of extra work running strxfrm() on all its strings.
In fact, we can see how it works by writing our own like this:
int my_strcoll(char *s1, char *s2)
{
// Use n = 0 to just get the lengths of the transformed strings
int len1 = strxfrm(NULL, s1, 0) + 1;
int len2 = strxfrm(NULL, s2, 0) + 1;
// Allocate enough room for each
char *d1 = malloc(len1);
char *d2 = malloc(len2);
// Transform the strings for comparison
strxfrm(d1, s1, len1);
strxfrm(d2, s2, len2);
// Compare the transformed strings
int result = strcmp(d1, d2);
// Free up the transformed strings
free(d2);
free(d1);
return result;
}You see on lines 12, 13, and 16, above how we transform the two input strings and then call strcmp() on the result.
So why do we have this function? Can’t we just call strcoll() and be done with it?
The idea is that if you have one string that you’re going to be comparing against a whole lot of other ones, maybe you just want to transform that string one time, then use the faster strcmp() saving yourself a bunch of the work we had to do in the function, above.
We’ll do that in the example.
Returns the number of bytes in the transformed sequence. If the value is greater than n, the results in s1 are meaningless.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <locale.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
// Transform a string for comparison, returning a malloc'd
// result
char *get_xfrm_str(char *s)
{
int len = strxfrm(NULL, s, 0) + 1;
char *d = malloc(len);
strxfrm(d, s, len);
return d;
}
// Does half the work of a regular strcoll() because the second
// string arrives already transformed.
int half_strcoll(char *s1, char *s2_transformed)
{
char *s1_transformed = get_xfrm_str(s1);
int result = strcmp(s1_transformed, s2_transformed);
free(s1_transformed);
return result;
}
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
// Pre-transform the string to compare against
char *s = get_xfrm_str("éfg");
// Repeatedly compare against "éfg"
printf("%d\n", half_strcoll("fgh", s)); // "fgh" > "éfg"
printf("%d\n", half_strcoll("àbc", s)); // "àbc" < "éfg"
printf("%d\n", half_strcoll("ĥij", s)); // "ĥij" > "éfg"
free(s);
}strchr(), strrchr(), memchr()
Find a character in a string
#include <string.h>
char *strchr(char *str, int c);
char *strrchr(char *str, int c);
void *memchr(const void *s, int c, size_t n);The functions strchr() and strrchr find the first or last occurrence of a letter in a string, respectively. (The extra “r” in strrchr() stands for “reverse”–it looks starting at the end of the string and working backward.) Each function returns a pointer to the char in question, or NULL if the letter isn’t found in the string.
memchr() is similar, except that instead of stopping on the first NUL character, it continues searching for however many bytes you specify.
Quite straightforward.
One thing you can do if you want to find the next occurrence of the letter after finding the first, is call the function again with the previous return value plus one. (Remember pointer arithmetic?) Or minus one if you’re looking in reverse. Don’t accidentally go off the end of the string!
Returns a pointer to the occurrence of the letter in the string, or NULL if the letter is not found.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
// "Hello, world!"
// ^ ^ ^
// A B C
char *str = "Hello, world!";
char *p;
p = strchr(str, ','); // p now points at position A
p = strrchr(str, 'o'); // p now points at position B
p = memchr(str, '!', 13); // p now points at position C
// repeatedly find all occurrences of the letter 'B'
str = "A BIG BROWN BAT BIT BEEJ";
for(p = strchr(str, 'B'); p != NULL; p = strchr(p + 1, 'B')) {
printf("Found a 'B' here: %s\n", p);
}
}Output:
Found a 'B' here: BIG BROWN BAT BIT BEEJ
Found a 'B' here: BROWN BAT BIT BEEJ
Found a 'B' here: BAT BIT BEEJ
Found a 'B' here: BIT BEEJ
Found a 'B' here: BEEJstrspn(), strcspn()
Return the length of a string consisting entirely of a set of characters, or of not a set of characters
#include <string.h>
size_t strspn(char *str, const char *accept);
size_t strcspn(char *str, const char *reject);strspn() will tell you the length of a string consisting entirely of the set of characters in accept. That is, it starts walking down str until it finds a character that is not in the set (that is, a character that is not to be accepted), and returns the length of the string so far.
strcspn() works much the same way, except that it walks down str until it finds a character in the reject set (that is, a character that is to be rejected.) It then returns the length of the string so far.
The length of the string consisting of all characters in accept (for strspn()), or the length of the string consisting of all characters except reject (for strcspn()).
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
char str1[] = "a banana";
char str2[] = "the bolivian navy on maenuvers in the south pacific";
int n;
// how many letters in str1 until we reach something that's not a vowel?
n = strspn(str1, "aeiou");
printf("%d\n", n); // n == 1, just "a"
// how many letters in str1 until we reach something that's not a, b,
// or space?
n = strspn(str1, "ab ");
printf("%d\n", n); // n == 4, "a ba"
// how many letters in str2 before we get a "y"?
n = strcspn(str2, "y");
printf("%d\n", n); // n = 16, "the bolivian nav"
}strpbrk()Search a string for one of a set of characters
#include <string.h>
char *strpbrk(const char *s1, const char *s2);This function searches string s1 for any of the characters that are found in string s2.
It’s just like how strchr() searches for a specific character in a string, except it will match any of the characters found in s2.
Think of the power!
Returns a pointer to the first character matched in s1, or NULL if the string isn’t found.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
// p points here after strpbrk
// v
char *s1 = "Hello, world!";
char *s2 = "dow!"; // Match any of these chars
char *p = strpbrk(s1, s2); // p points to the o
printf("%s\n", p); // "o, world!"
}strstr()Find a string in another string
#include <string.h>
char *strstr(const char *str, const char *substr);Let’s say you have a big long string, and you want to find a word, or whatever substring strikes your fancy, inside the first string. Then strstr() is for you! It’ll return a pointer to the substr within the str!
You get back a pointer to the occurrence of the substr inside the str, or NULL if the substring can’t be found.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
char *str = "The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dogs.";
char *p;
p = strstr(str, "lazy");
printf("%s\n", p == NULL? "null": p); // "lazy dogs."
// p is NULL after this, since the string "wombat" isn't in str:
p = strstr(str, "wombat");
printf("%s\n", p == NULL? "null": p); // "null"
}strchr(), strrchr(), strspn(), strcspn()
strtok()Tokenize a string
#include <string.h>
char *strtok(char *str, const char *delim);If you have a string that has a bunch of separators in it, and you want to break that string up into individual pieces, this function can do it for you.
The usage is a little bit weird, but at least whenever you see the function in the wild, it’s consistently weird.
Basically, the first time you call it, you pass the string, str that you want to break up in as the first argument. For each subsequent call to get more tokens out of the string, you pass NULL. This is a little weird, but strtok() remembers the string you originally passed in, and continues to strip tokens off for you.
Note that it does this by actually putting a NUL terminator after the token, and then returning a pointer to the start of the token. So the original string you pass in is destroyed, as it were. If you need to preserve the string, be sure to pass a copy of it to strtok() so the original isn’t destroyed.
A pointer to the next token. If you’re out of tokens, NULL is returned.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
// break up the string into a series of space or
// punctuation-separated words
char str[] = "Where is my bacon, dude?";
char *token;
// Note that the following if-do-while construct is very very
// very very very common to see when using strtok().
// grab the first token (making sure there is a first token!)
if ((token = strtok(str, ".,?! ")) != NULL) {
do {
printf("Word: \"%s\"\n", token);
// now, the while continuation condition grabs the
// next token (by passing NULL as the first param)
// and continues if the token's not NULL:
} while ((token = strtok(NULL, ".,?! ")) != NULL);
}
}Output:
Word: "Where"
Word: "is"
Word: "my"
Word: "bacon"
Word: "dude"strchr(), strrchr(), strspn(), strcspn()
memset()Set a region of memory to a certain value
#include <string.h>
void *memset(void *s, int c, size_t n);This function is what you use to set a region of memory to a particular value, namely c converted into unsigned char.
The most common usage is to zero out an array or struct.
memset() returns whatever you passed in as s for happy convenience.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
struct banana {
float ripeness;
char *peel_color;
int grams;
};
struct banana b;
memset(&b, 0, sizeof b);
printf("%d\n", b.ripeness == 0.0); // True
printf("%d\n", b.peel_color == NULL); // True
printf("%d\n", b.grams == 0); // True
}strerror()Get a string version of an error number
#include <string.h>
char *strerror(int errnum);This function ties closely into perror() (which prints a human-readable error message corresponding to errno). But instead of printing, strerror() returns a pointer to the locale-specific error message string.
So if you ever need that string back for some reason (e.g. you’re going to fprintf() it to a file or something), this function will give it to you. All you need to do is pass in errno as an argument. (Recall that errno gets set as an error status by a variety of functions.)
You can actually pass in any integer for errnum you want. The function will return some message, even if the number doesn’t correspond to any known value for errno.
The values of errno and the strings returned by strerror() are system-dependent.
A string error message corresponding to the given error number.
You are not allowed to modify the returned string.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <errno.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp = fopen("NONEXISTENT_FILE.TXT", "r");
if (fp == NULL) {
char *errmsg = strerror(errno);
printf("Error %d opening file: %s\n", errno, errmsg);
}
}Output:
Error 2 opening file: No such file or directorystrlen()Returns the length of a string
#include <string.h>
size_t strlen(const char *s);This function returns the length of the passed null-terminated string (not counting the NUL character at the end). It does this by walking down the string and counting the bytes until the NUL character, so it’s a little time consuming. If you have to get the length of the same string repeatedly, save it off in a variable somewhere.
Returns the number of bytes in the string. Note that this might be different than the number of characters in a multibyte string.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main(void)
{
char *s = "Hello, world!"; // 13 characters
// prints "The string is 13 characters long.":
printf("The string is %zu characters long.\n", strlen(s));
}<tgmath.h> Type-Generic Math FunctionsThese are type-generic macros that are wrappers around the math functions in <math.h> and <complex.h>. This header includes both of those.
But on the surface, you can think of them as being able to use, say, the sqrt() function with any type without needed to think about if it’s double or long double or even complex.
These are the defined macros—some of them don’t have a counterpart in the real or complex space. Type suffixes are omitted in the table on the Real and Complex columns. None of the generic macros have type suffixes.
| Real Function | Complex Function | Generic Macro |
|---|---|---|
acos |
cacos |
acos |
asin |
casin |
asin |
atan |
catan |
atan |
acosh |
cacosh |
acosh |
asinh |
casinh |
asinh |
atanh |
catanh |
atanh |
cos |
ccos |
cos |
sin |
csin |
sin |
tan |
ctan |
tan |
cosh |
ccosh |
cosh |
sinh |
csinh |
sinh |
tanh |
ctanh |
tanh |
exp |
cexp |
exp |
log |
clog |
log |
pow |
cpow |
pow |
sqrt |
csqrt |
sqrt |
fabs |
cabs |
fabs |
atan2 |
— | atan2 |
fdim |
— | fdim |
cbrt |
— | cbrt |
floor |
— | floor |
ceil |
— | ceil |
fma |
— | fma |
copysign |
— | copysign |
fmax |
— | fmax |
erf |
— | erf |
fmin |
— | fmin |
erfc |
— | erfc |
fmod |
— | fmod |
exp2 |
— | exp2 |
frexp |
— | frexp |
expm1 |
— | expm1 |
hypot |
— | hypot |
ilogb |
— | ilogb |
ldexp |
— | ldexp |
lgamma |
— | lgamma |
llrint |
— | llrint |
llround |
— | llround |
log10 |
— | log10 |
log1p |
— | log1p |
log2 |
— | log2 |
logb |
— | logb |
lrint |
— | lrint |
lround |
— | lround |
nearbyint |
— | nearbyint |
nextafter |
— | nextafter |
nexttoward |
— | nexttoward |
remainder |
— | remainder |
remquo |
— | remquo |
rint |
— | rint |
round |
— | round |
scalbn |
— | scalbn |
scalbln |
— | scalbln |
tgamma |
— | tgamma |
trunc |
— | trunc |
| — | carg |
carg |
| — | cimag |
cimag |
| — | conj |
conj |
| — | cproj |
cproj |
| — | creal |
creal |
Here’s an example where we call the type-generic sqrt() function on a variety of types.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <tgmath.h>
int main(void)
{
double x = 12.8;
long double y = 34.9;
double complex z = 1 + 2 * I;
double x_result;
long double y_result;
double complex z_result;
// We call the same sqrt() function--it's type-generic!
x_result = sqrt(x);
y_result = sqrt(y);
z_result = sqrt(z);
printf("x_result: %f\n", x_result);
printf("y_result: %Lf\n", y_result);
printf("z_result: %f + %fi\n", creal(z_result), cimag(z_result));
}Output:
x_result: 3.577709
y_result: 5.907622
z_result: 1.272020 + 0.786151i<threads.h> Multithreading Functions| Function | Description |
|---|---|
call_once() |
Call a function one time no matter how many threads try |
cnd_broadcast() |
Wake up all threads waiting on a condition variable |
cnd_destroy() |
Free up resources from a condition variable |
cnd_init() |
Initialize a condition variable to make it ready for use |
cnd_signal() |
Wake up a thread waiting on a condition variable |
cnd_timedwait() |
Wait on a condition variable with a timeout |
cnd_wait() |
Wait for a signal on a condition variable |
mtx_destroy() |
Cleanup a mutex when done with it |
mtx_init() |
Initialize a mutex for use |
mtx_lock() |
Acquire a lock on a mutex |
mtx_timedlock() |
Lock a mutex allowing for timeout |
mtx_trylock() |
Try to lock a mutex, returning if not possible |
mtx_unlock() |
Free a mutex when you’re done with the critical section |
thrd_create() |
Create a new thread of execution |
thrd_current() |
Get the ID of the calling thread |
thrd_detach() |
Automatically clean up threads when they exit |
thrd_equal() |
Compare two thread descriptors for equality |
thrd_exit() |
Stop and exit this thread |
thrd_join() |
Wait for a thread to exit |
thrd_yield() |
Stop running that other threads might run |
tss_create() |
Create new thread-specific storage |
tss_delete() |
Clean up a thread-specific storage variable |
tss_get() |
Get thread-specific data |
tss_set() |
Set thread-specific data |
We have a bunch of good things at our disposal with this one:
call_once() function!Enjoy!
call_once()Call a function one time no matter how many threads try
#include <threads.h>
void call_once(once_flag *flag, void (*func)(void));If you have a bunch of threads running over the same piece of code that calls a function, but you only want that function to run one time, call_once() can help you out.
The catch is the function that is called doesn’t return anything and takes no arguments.
If you need more than that, you’ll have to set a threadsafe flag such as atomic_flag, or one that you protect with a mutex.
To use this, you need to pass it a pointer to a function to execute, func, and also a pointer to a flag of type once_flag.
once_flag is an opaque type, so all you need to know is that you initialize it to the value ONCE_FLAG_INIT.
Returns nothing.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
once_flag of = ONCE_FLAG_INIT; // Initialize it like this
void run_once_function(void)
{
printf("I'll only run once!\n");
}
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
printf("Thread running!\n");
call_once(&of, run_once_function);
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, NULL);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
}Output (might vary per run):
Thread running!
Thread running!
I'll only run once!
Thread running!
Thread running!
Thread running!cnd_broadcast()Wake up all threads waiting on a condition variable
#include <threads.h>
int cnd_broadcast(cnd_t *cond);This is just like cnd_signal() in that it wakes up threads that are waiting on a condition variable…. except instead of just rousing one thread, it wakes them all.
Of course, only one will get the mutex, and the rest will have to wait their turn. But instead of being asleep waiting for a signal, they’ll be asleep waiting to reacquire the mutex. They’re rearin’ to go, in other words.
This can make a difference in a specific set of circumstances where cnd_signal() might leave you hanging.
If you’re relying on subsequent threads to issue the next cnd_signal(), but you have the cnd_wait() in a while loop65 that doesn’t allow any threads to escape, you’ll be stuck. No more threads will be woken up from the wait.
But if you cnd_broadcast(), all the threads will be woken, and presumably at least one of them will be allowed to escape the while loop, freeing it up to broadcast the next wakeup when its work is done.
Returns thrd_success or thrd_error depending on how well things went.
In the example below, we launch a bunch of threads, but they’re only allowed to run if their ID matches the current ID. If it doesn’t, they go back to waiting.
If you cnd_signal() to wake the next thread, it might not be the one with the proper ID to run. If it’s not, it goes back to sleep and we hang (because no thread is awake to hit cnd_signal() again).
But if you cnd_broadcast() to wake them all, then they’ll all try (one after another) to get out of the while loop. And one of them will make it.
Try switching the cnd_broadcast() to cnd_signal() to see likely deadlocks. It doesn’t happen every time, but usually does.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
int id = *(int*)arg;
static int current_id = 0;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
while (id != current_id) {
printf("THREAD %d: waiting\n", id);
cnd_wait(&condvar, &mutex);
if (id != current_id)
printf("THREAD %d: woke up, but it's not my turn!\n", id);
else
printf("THREAD %d: woke up, my turn! Let's go!\n", id);
}
current_id++;
printf("THREAD %d: signaling thread %d to run\n", id, current_id);
//cnd_signal(&condvar);
cnd_broadcast(&condvar);
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
int id[] = {4, 3, 2, 1, 0};
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
cnd_init(&condvar);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, id + i);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
cnd_destroy(&condvar);
}Example run with cnd_broadcast():
THREAD 4: waiting
THREAD 1: waiting
THREAD 3: waiting
THREAD 2: waiting
THREAD 0: signaling thread 1 to run
THREAD 2: woke up, but it's not my turn!
THREAD 2: waiting
THREAD 4: woke up, but it's not my turn!
THREAD 4: waiting
THREAD 3: woke up, but it's not my turn!
THREAD 3: waiting
THREAD 1: woke up, my turn! Let's go!
THREAD 1: signaling thread 2 to run
THREAD 4: woke up, but it's not my turn!
THREAD 4: waiting
THREAD 3: woke up, but it's not my turn!
THREAD 3: waiting
THREAD 2: woke up, my turn! Let's go!
THREAD 2: signaling thread 3 to run
THREAD 4: woke up, but it's not my turn!
THREAD 4: waiting
THREAD 3: woke up, my turn! Let's go!
THREAD 3: signaling thread 4 to run
THREAD 4: woke up, my turn! Let's go!
THREAD 4: signaling thread 5 to runExample run with cnd_signal():
THREAD 4: waiting
THREAD 1: waiting
THREAD 3: waiting
THREAD 2: waiting
THREAD 0: signaling thread 1 to run
THREAD 4: woke up, but it's not my turn!
THREAD 4: waiting
[deadlock at this point]See how THREAD 0 signaled that it was THREAD 1’s turn? But—bad news—it was THREAD 4 that got woken up. So no one continued the process. cnd_broadcast() would have woken them all, so eventually THREAD 1 would have run, gotten out of the while, and broadcast for the next thread to run.
cnd_signal(), mtx_lock(), mtx_unlock()
cnd_destroy()Free up resources from a condition variable
#include <threads.h>
void cnd_destroy(cnd_t *cond);This is the opposite of cnd_init() and should be called when all threads are done using a condition variable.
Returns nothing!
General-purpose condition variable example here, but you can see the cnd_destroy() down at the end.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Thread: waiting...\n");
cnd_wait(&condvar, &mutex);
printf("Thread: running again!\n");
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
cnd_init(&condvar);
printf("Main creating thread\n");
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
// Sleep 0.1s to allow the other thread to wait
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_nsec=100000000L}, NULL);
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Main: signaling thread\n");
cnd_signal(&condvar);
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
thrd_join(t, NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
cnd_destroy(&condvar); // <-- DESTROY CONDITION VARIABLE
}Output:
Main creating thread
Thread: waiting...
Main: signaling thread
Thread: running again!cnd_init()Initialize a condition variable to make it ready for use
#include <threads.h>
int cnd_init(cnd_t *cond);This is the opposite of cnd_destroy(). This prepares a condition variable for use, doing behind-the-scenes work on it.
Don’t use a condition variable without calling this first!
If all goes well, returns thrd_success. It all doesn’t go well, it could return thrd_nomem if the system is out of memory, or thread_error in the case of any other error.
General-purpose condition variable example here, but you can see the cnd_init() down at the start of main().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Thread: waiting...\n");
cnd_wait(&condvar, &mutex);
printf("Thread: running again!\n");
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
cnd_init(&condvar); // <-- INITIALIZE CONDITION VARIABLE
printf("Main creating thread\n");
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
// Sleep 0.1s to allow the other thread to wait
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_nsec=100000000L}, NULL);
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Main: signaling thread\n");
cnd_signal(&condvar);
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
thrd_join(t, NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
cnd_destroy(&condvar);
}Output:
Main creating thread
Thread: waiting...
Main: signaling thread
Thread: running again!cnd_signal()Wake up a thread waiting on a condition variable
#include <threads.h>
int cnd_signal(cnd_t *cond);If you have a thread (or a bunch of threads) waiting on a condition variable, this function will wake one of them up to run.
Compare to cnd_broadcast() that wakes up all the threads. See the cnd_broadcast() page for more information on when you’re want to use that versus this.
Returns thrd_success or thrd_error depending on how happy your program is.
General-purpose condition variable example here, but you can see the cnd_signal() in the middle of main().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Thread: waiting...\n");
cnd_wait(&condvar, &mutex);
printf("Thread: running again!\n");
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
cnd_init(&condvar);
printf("Main creating thread\n");
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
// Sleep 0.1s to allow the other thread to wait
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_nsec=100000000L}, NULL);
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Main: signaling thread\n");
cnd_signal(&condvar); // <-- SIGNAL CHILD THREAD HERE!
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
thrd_join(t, NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
cnd_destroy(&condvar);
}Output:
Main creating thread
Thread: waiting...
Main: signaling thread
Thread: running again!cnd_timedwait()Wait on a condition variable with a timeout
#include <threads.h>
int cnd_timedwait(cnd_t *restrict cond, mtx_t *restrict mtx,
const struct timespec *restrict ts);This is like cnd_wait() except we get to specify a timeout, as well.
Note that the thread still must reacquire the mutex to get more work done even after the timeout. The the main difference is that regular cnd_wait() will only try to get the mutex after a cnd_signal() or cnd_broadcast(), whereas cnd_timedwait() will do that, too, and try to get the mutex after the timeout.
The timeout is specified as an absolute UTC time since Epoch. You can get this with the timespec_get() function and then add values on to the result to timeout later than now, as shown in the example.
Beware that you can’t have more than 999999999 nanoseconds in the tv_nsec field of the struct timespec. Mod those so they stay in range.
If the thread wakes up for a non-timeout reason (e.g. signal or broadcast), returns thrd_success. If woken up due to timeout, returns thrd_timedout. Otherwise returns thrd_error.
This example has a thread wait on a condition variable for a maximum of 1.75 seconds. And it always times out because no one ever sends a signal. Tragic.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
struct timespec ts;
// Get the time now
timespec_get(&ts, TIME_UTC);
// Add on 1.75 seconds from now
ts.tv_sec += 1;
ts.tv_nsec += 750000000L;
// Handle nsec overflow
ts.tv_sec += ts.tv_nsec / 1000000000L;
ts.tv_nsec = ts.tv_nsec % 1000000000L;
printf("Thread: waiting...\n");
int r = cnd_timedwait(&condvar, &mutex, &ts);
switch (r) {
case thrd_success:
printf("Thread: signaled!\n");
break;
case thrd_timedout:
printf("Thread: timed out!\n");
return 1;
case thrd_error:
printf("Thread: Some kind of error\n");
return 2;
}
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
cnd_init(&condvar);
printf("Main creating thread\n");
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
// Sleep 3s to allow the other thread to timeout
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_sec=3}, NULL);
thrd_join(t, NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
cnd_destroy(&condvar);
}Output:
Main creating thread
Thread: waiting...
Thread: timed out!cnd_wait()Wait for a signal on a condition variable
#include <threads.h>
int cnd_wait(cnd_t *cond, mtx_t *mtx);This puts the calling thread to sleep until it is awakened by a call to cnd_signal() or cnd_broadcast().
If everything’s fantastic, returns thrd_success. Otherwise it returns thrd_error to report that something has gone fantastically, horribly awry.
General-purpose condition variable example here, but you can see the cnd_wait() in the run() function.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Thread: waiting...\n");
cnd_wait(&condvar, &mutex); // <-- WAIT HERE!
printf("Thread: running again!\n");
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
cnd_init(&condvar);
printf("Main creating thread\n");
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
// Sleep 0.1s to allow the other thread to wait
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_nsec=100000000L}, NULL);
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Main: signaling thread\n");
cnd_signal(&condvar); // <-- SIGNAL CHILD THREAD HERE!
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
thrd_join(t, NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
cnd_destroy(&condvar);
}Output:
Main creating thread
Thread: waiting...
Main: signaling thread
Thread: running again!mtx_destroy()Cleanup a mutex when done with it
#include <threads.h>
void mtx_destroy(mtx_t *mtx);The opposite of mtx_init(), this function frees up any resources associated with the given mutex.
You should call this when all threads are done using the mutex.
Returns nothing, the selfish ingrate!
General-purpose mutex example here, but you can see the mtx_destroy() down at the end.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
static int count = 0;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Thread: I got %d!\n", count);
count++;
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, NULL);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex); // <-- DESTROY THE MUTEX HERE
}Output:
Thread: I got 0!
Thread: I got 1!
Thread: I got 2!
Thread: I got 3!
Thread: I got 4!mtx_init()Initialize a mutex for use
#include <threads.h>
int mtx_init(mtx_t *mtx, int type);Before you can use a mutex variable, you have to initialize it with this call to get it all prepped and ready to go.
But wait! It’s not quite that simple. You have to tell it what type of mutex you want to create.
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
mtx_plain |
Regular ol’ mutex |
mtx_timed |
Mutex that supports timeouts |
mtx_plain|mtx_recursive |
Recursive mutex |
mtx_timed|mtx_recursive |
Recursive mutex that supports timeouts |
As you can see, you can make a plain or timed mutex recursive by bitwise-ORing the value with mtx_recursive.
“Recursive” means that the holder of a lock can call mtx_lock() multiple times on the same lock. (They have to unlock it an equal number of times before anyone else can take the mutex.) This might ease coding from time to time, especially if you call a function that needs to lock the mutex when you already hold the mutex.
And the timeout gives a thread a chance to try to get the lock for a while, but then bail out if it can’t get it in that timeframe. You use the mtx_timedlock() function with mtx_timed mutexes.
Returns thrd_success in a perfect world, and potentially thrd_error in an imperfect one.
General-purpose mutex example here, but you can see the mtx_init() down at the top of main():
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
static int count = 0;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Thread: I got %d!\n", count);
count++;
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain); // <-- CREATE THE MUTEX HERE
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, NULL);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex); // <-- DESTROY THE MUTEX HERE
}Output:
Thread: I got 0!
Thread: I got 1!
Thread: I got 2!
Thread: I got 3!
Thread: I got 4!mtx_lock()Acquire a lock on a mutex
#include <threads.h>
int mtx_lock(mtx_t *mtx);If you’re a thread and want to enter a critical section, do I have the function for you!
A thread that calls this function will wait until it can acquire the mutex, then it will grab it, wake up, and run!
If the mutex is recursive and is already locked by this thread, it will be locked again and the lock count will increase. If the mutex is not recursive and the thread already holds it, this call will error out.
Returns thrd_success on goodness and thrd_error on badness.
General-purpose mutex example here, but you can see the mtx_lock() in the run() function:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
static int count = 0;
mtx_lock(&mutex); // <-- LOCK HERE
printf("Thread: I got %d!\n", count);
count++;
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain); // <-- CREATE THE MUTEX HERE
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, NULL);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex); // <-- DESTROY THE MUTEX HERE
}Output:
Thread: I got 0!
Thread: I got 1!
Thread: I got 2!
Thread: I got 3!
Thread: I got 4!mtx_unlock(), mtx_trylock(), mtx_timedlock()
mtx_timedlock()Lock a mutex allowing for timeout
#include <threads.h>
int mtx_timedlock(mtx_t *restrict mtx, const struct timespec *restrict ts);This is just like mtx_lock() except you can add a timeout if you don’t want to wait forever.
The timeout is specified as an absolute UTC time since Epoch. You can get this with the timespec_get() function and then add values on to the result to timeout later than now, as shown in the example.
Beware that you can’t have more than 999999999 nanoseconds in the tv_nsec field of the struct timespec. Mod those so they stay in range.
If everything works and the mutex is obtained, returns thrd_success. If a timeout happens first, returns thrd_timedout.
Otherwise, returns thrd_error. Because if nothing is right, everything is wrong.
This example has a thread wait on a mutex for a maximum of 1.75 seconds. And it always times out because no one ever sends a signal.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <threads.h>
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
struct timespec ts;
// Get the time now
timespec_get(&ts, TIME_UTC);
// Add on 1.75 seconds from now
ts.tv_sec += 1;
ts.tv_nsec += 750000000L;
// Handle nsec overflow
ts.tv_sec += ts.tv_nsec / 1000000000L;
ts.tv_nsec = ts.tv_nsec % 1000000000L;
printf("Thread: waiting for lock...\n");
int r = mtx_timedlock(&mutex, &ts);
switch (r) {
case thrd_success:
printf("Thread: grabbed lock!\n");
break;
case thrd_timedout:
printf("Thread: timed out!\n");
break;
case thrd_error:
printf("Thread: Some kind of error\n");
break;
}
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Main creating thread\n");
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
// Sleep 3s to allow the other thread to timeout
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_sec=3}, NULL);
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
thrd_join(t, NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
}Output:
Main creating thread
Thread: waiting for lock...
Thread: timed out!mtx_lock(), mtx_trylock(), timespec_get()
mtx_trylock()Try to lock a mutex, returning if not possible
#include <threads.h>
int mtx_trylock(mtx_t *mtx);This works just like mtx_lock except that it returns instantly if a lock can’t be obtained.
The spec notes that there’s a chance that mtx_trylock() might spuriously fail with thrd_busy even if there are no other threads holding the lock. I’m not sure why this is, but you should defensively code against it.
Returns thrd_success if all’s well. Or thrd_busy if some other thread holds the lock. Or thrd_error, which means something went right. I mean “wrong”.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <threads.h>
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
int id = *(int*)arg;
int r = mtx_trylock(&mutex); // <-- TRY TO GRAB THE LOCK
switch (r) {
case thrd_success:
printf("Thread %d: grabbed lock!\n", id);
break;
case thrd_busy:
printf("Thread %d: lock already taken :(\n", id);
return 1;
case thrd_error:
printf("Thread %d: Some kind of error\n", id);
return 2;
}
mtx_unlock(&mutex);
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
int id[THREAD_COUNT];
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
id[i] = i;
thrd_create(t + i, run, id + i);
}
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
}Output (varies by run):
Thread 0: grabbed lock!
Thread 1: lock already taken :(
Thread 4: lock already taken :(
Thread 3: grabbed lock!
Thread 2: lock already taken :(mtx_lock(), mtx_timedlock(), mtx_unlock()
mtx_unlock()Free a mutex when you’re done with the critical section
#include <threads.h>
int mtx_unlock(mtx_t *mtx);After you’ve done all the dangerous stuff you have to do, wherein the involved threads should not be stepping on each other’s toes… you can free up your stranglehold on the mutex by calling mtx_unlock().
Returns thrd_success on success. Or thrd_error on error. It’s not very original in this regard.
General-purpose mutex example here, but you can see the mtx_unlock() in the run() function:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
cnd_t condvar;
mtx_t mutex;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
static int count = 0;
mtx_lock(&mutex);
printf("Thread: I got %d!\n", count);
count++;
mtx_unlock(&mutex); // <-- UNLOCK HERE
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
mtx_init(&mutex, mtx_plain);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, NULL);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
mtx_destroy(&mutex);
}Output:
Thread: I got 0!
Thread: I got 1!
Thread: I got 2!
Thread: I got 3!
Thread: I got 4!mtx_lock(), mtx_timedlock(), mtx_trylock()
thrd_create()Create a new thread of execution
#include <threads.h>
int thrd_create(thrd_t *thr, thrd_start_t func, void *arg);Now you have the POWER!
Right?
This is how you launch new threads to make your program do multiple things at once66!
In order to make this happen, you need to pass a pointer to a thrd_t that will be used to represent the thread you’re spawning.
That thread will start running the function you pass a pointer to in func. This is a value of type thrd_start_t, which is a pointer to a function that returns an int and takes a single void* as a parameter, i.e.:
int thread_run_func(void *arg)And, as you might have guessed, the pointer you pass to thrd_create() for the arg parameter is passed on to the func function. This is how you can give additional information to the thread when it starts up.
Of course, for arg, you have to be sure to pass a pointer to an object that is thread-safe or per-thread.
If the thread returns from the function, it exits just as if it had called thrd_exit().
Finally, the value that the func function returns can be picked up by the parent thread with thrd_join().
In the case of goodness, returns thrd_success. If you’re out of memory, will return thrd_nomem. Otherwise, thrd_error.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
int run(void *arg)
{
int id = *(int*)arg;
printf("Thread %d: I'm alive!!\n", id);
return id;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
int id[THREAD_COUNT]; // One of these per thread
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
id[i] = i; // Let's pass in the thread number as the ID
thrd_create(t + i, run, id + i);
}
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
int res;
thrd_join(t[i], &res);
printf("Main: thread %d exited with code %d\n", i, res);
}
}Output (might vary from run to run):
Thread 1: I'm alive!!
Thread 0: I'm alive!!
Thread 3: I'm alive!!
Thread 2: I'm alive!!
Main: thread 0 exited with code 0
Main: thread 1 exited with code 1
Main: thread 2 exited with code 2
Main: thread 3 exited with code 3
Thread 4: I'm alive!!
Main: thread 4 exited with code 4thrd_current()Get the ID of the calling thread
#include <threads.h>
thrd_t thrd_current(void);Each thread has an opaque ID of type thrd_t. This is the value we see get initialized when we call thrd_create().
But what if you want to get the ID of the currently running thread?
No problem! Just call this function and it will be returned to you.
Why? Who knows!
Well, to be honest, I could see it being used a couple places.
thrd_detach(). I’m not sure why you’d want to do this, however.thrd_equal() function. Seems like the most legit use.If anyone has another use, please let me know.
Returns the calling thread’s ID.
Here’s a general example that shows getting the current thread ID and comparing it to a previously-recorded thread ID and taking exciting action based on the result! Starring Arnold Schwarzenegger!
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
thrd_t first_thread_id;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
thrd_t my_id = thrd_current(); // <-- GET MY THREAD ID
if (thrd_equal(my_id, first_thread_id))
printf("I'm the first thread!\n");
else
printf("I'm not the first!\n");
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
thrd_create(&first_thread_id, run, NULL);
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
thrd_join(first_thread_id, NULL);
thrd_join(t, NULL);
}Output:
Come on, you got what you want, Cohaagen! Give deez people ay-ah!No, wait, that’s an Arnold Schwarzenegger quote from Total Recall, one of the best science fiction films of all time. Watch it now and then come back to finish this reference page.
Man–what an ending! And Johnny Cab? So excellent. Anyway!
Output:
I'm the first thread!
I'm not the first!thrd_detach()Automatically clean up threads when they exit
#include <threads.h>
int thrd_detach(thrd_t thr);Normally you have to thrd_join() to get resources associated with a deceased thread cleaned up. (Most notably, its exit status is still floating around waiting to get picked up.)
But if you call thrd_detach() on the thread first, manual cleanup isn’t necessary. They just exit and are cleaned up by the OS.
(Note that when the main thread dies, all the threads die in any case.)
thrd_success if the thread successfully detaches, thrd_error otherwise.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
thrd_t first_thread_id;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
printf("Thread running!\n");
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
thrd_detach(t);
}
// No need to thrd_join()!
// Sleep a quarter second to let them all finish
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_nsec=250000000}, NULL);
}thrd_equal()Compare two thread descriptors for equality
#include <threads.h>
int thrd_equal(thrd_t thr0, thrd_t thr1);If you have two thread descriptors in thrd_t variables, you can test them for equality with this function.
For example, maybe one of the threads has special powers the others don’t, and the run function needs to be able to tell them apart, as in the example.
Returns non-zero if the threads are equal. Returns 0 if they’re not.
Here’s a general example that shows getting the current thread ID and comparing it to a previously-recorded thread ID and taking boring action based on the result.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
thrd_t first_thread_id;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
thrd_t my_id = thrd_current();
if (thrd_equal(my_id, first_thread_id)) // <-- COMPARE!
printf("I'm the first thread!\n");
else
printf("I'm not the first!\n");
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t;
thrd_create(&first_thread_id, run, NULL);
thrd_create(&t, run, NULL);
thrd_join(first_thread_id, NULL);
thrd_join(t, NULL);
}Output:
I'm the first thread!
I'm not the first!thrd_exit()Stop and exit this thread
#include <threads.h>
_Noreturn void thrd_exit(int res);A thread commonly exits by returning from its run function. But if it wants to exit early (perhaps from deeper in the call stack), this function will get that done.
The res code can be picked up by a thread calling thrd_join(), and is equivalent to returning a value from the run function.
Like with returning from the run function, this will also properly clean up all the thread-specific storage associated with this thread—all the destructors for the threads TSS variables will be called. If there are any remaining TSS variables with destructors after the first round of destruction67, the remaining destructors will be called. This happens repeatedly until there are no more, or the number of rounds of carnage reaches TSS_DTOR_ITERATIONS.
If the main thread calls this, it’s as if you called exit(EXIT_SUCCESS).
This function never returns because the thread calling it is killed in the process. Trippy!
Threads in this example exit early with result 22 if they get a NULL value for arg.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
thrd_t first_thread_id;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
if (arg == NULL)
thrd_exit(22);
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, i == 2? NULL: "spatula");
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
int res;
thrd_join(t[i], &res);
printf("Thread %d exited with code %d\n", i, res);
}
}Output:
Thread 0 exited with code 0
Thread 1 exited with code 0
Thread 2 exited with code 22
Thread 3 exited with code 0
Thread 4 exited with code 0thrd_join()Wait for a thread to exit
#include <threads.h>
int thrd_join(thrd_t thr, int *res);When a parent thread fires off some child threads, it can wait for them to complete with this call
Threads in this example exit early with result 22 if they get a NULL value for arg. The parent thread picks up this result code with thrd_join().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
thrd_t first_thread_id;
int run(void *arg)
{
(void)arg;
if (arg == NULL)
thrd_exit(22);
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 5
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, i == 2? NULL: "spatula");
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
int res;
thrd_join(t[i], &res);
printf("Thread %d exited with code %d\n", i, res);
}
}Output:
Thread 0 exited with code 0
Thread 1 exited with code 0
Thread 2 exited with code 22
Thread 3 exited with code 0
Thread 4 exited with code 0thrd_sleep()Sleep for a specific number of seconds and nanoseconds
#include <threads.h>
int thrd_sleep(const struct timespec *duration, struct timespec *remaining);This function puts the current thread to sleep for a while68 allowing other threads to run.
The calling thread will wake up after the time has elapsed, or if it gets interrupted by a signal or something.
If it doesn’t get interrupted, it’ll sleep at least as long as you asked. Maybe a tad longer. You know how hard it can be to get out of bed.
The structure looks like this:
struct timespec {
time_t tv_sec; // Seconds
long tv_nsec; // Nanoseconds (billionths of a second)
};Don’t set tv_nsec greater than 999,999,999. I can’t see what officially happens if you do, but on my system thrd_sleep() returns -2 and fails.
Returns 0 on timeout, or -1 if interrupted by a signal. Or any negative value on some other error. Weirdly, the spec allows this “other error negative value” to also be -1, so good luck with that.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
int main(void)
{
// Sleep for 3.25 seconds
thrd_sleep(&(struct timespec){.tv_sec=3, .tv_nsec=250000000}, NULL);
return 0;
}thrd_yield()Stop running that other threads might run
#include <threads.h>
void thrd_yield(void);If you have a thread that’s hogging the CPU and you want to give your other threads time to run, you can call thrd_yield(). If the system sees fit, it will put the calling thread to sleep and one of the other threads will run instead.
It’s a good way to be “polite” to the other threads in your program if you want the encourage them to run instead.
Returns nothing!
This example’s kinda poor because the OS is probably going to reschedule threads on the output anyway, but it gets the point across.
The main thread is giving other threads a chance to run after every block of dumb work it does.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <threads.h>
int run(void *arg)
{
int main_thread = arg != NULL;
if (main_thread) {
long int total = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
for (long int j = 0; j < 1000L; j++)
total++;
printf("Main thread yielding\n");
thrd_yield(); // <-- YIELD HERE
}
} else
printf("Other thread running!\n");
return 0;
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 10
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_create(t + i, run, i == 0? "main": NULL);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++)
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
return 0;
}The output will vary from run to run. Notice that even after thrd_yield() other threads might not yet be ready to run and the main thread will continue.
Main thread yielding
Main thread yielding
Main thread yielding
Other thread running!
Other thread running!
Other thread running!
Other thread running!
Main thread yielding
Other thread running!
Other thread running!
Main thread yielding
Main thread yielding
Main thread yielding
Other thread running!
Main thread yielding
Main thread yielding
Main thread yielding
Other thread running!
Other thread running!tss_create()Create new thread-specific storage
#include <threads.h>
int tss_create(tss_t *key, tss_dtor_t dtor);This helps when you need per-thread storage of different values.
A common place this comes up is if you have a file scope variable that is shared between a bunch of functions and often returned. That’s not threadsafe. One way to refactor is to replace it with thread-specific storage so that each thread gets their own code and doesn’t step on other thread’s toes.
To make this work, you pass in a pointer to a tss_t key—this is the variable you will use in subsequent tss_set() and tss_get() calls to set and get the value associated with the key.
The interesting part of this is the dtor destructor pointer of type tss_dtor_t. This is actually a pointer to a function that takes a void* argument and returns void, i.e.
void dtor(void *p) { ... }This function will be called per thread when the thread exits with thrd_exit() (or returns from the run function).
It’s unspecified behavior to call this function while other threads’ destructors are running.
Returns nothing!
This is a general-purpose TSS example. Note the TSS variable is created near the top of main().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <threads.h>
tss_t str;
void some_function(void)
{
// Retrieve the per-thread value of this string
char *tss_string = tss_get(str);
// And print it
printf("TSS string: %s\n", tss_string);
}
int run(void *arg)
{
int serial = *(int*)arg; // Get this thread's serial number
free(arg);
// malloc() space to hold the data for this thread
char *s = malloc(64);
sprintf(s, "thread %d! :)", serial); // Happy little string
// Set this TSS variable to point at the string
tss_set(str, s);
// Call a function that will get the variable
some_function();
return 0; // Equivalent to thrd_exit(0); fires destructors
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 15
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
// Make a new TSS variable, the free() function is the destructor
tss_create(&str, free); // <-- CREATE TSS VAR!
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
int *n = malloc(sizeof *n); // Holds a thread serial number
*n = i;
thrd_create(t + i, run, n);
}
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
}
// And all threads are done, so let's free this
tss_delete(str);
}Output:
TSS string: thread 0! :)
TSS string: thread 2! :)
TSS string: thread 1! :)
TSS string: thread 5! :)
TSS string: thread 3! :)
TSS string: thread 6! :)
TSS string: thread 4! :)
TSS string: thread 7! :)
TSS string: thread 8! :)
TSS string: thread 9! :)
TSS string: thread 10! :)
TSS string: thread 13! :)
TSS string: thread 12! :)
TSS string: thread 11! :)
TSS string: thread 14! :)tss_delete(), tss_set(), tss_get(), thrd_exit()
tss_delete()Clean up a thread-specific storage variable
#include <threads.h>
void tss_delete(tss_t key);This is the opposite of tss_create(). You create (initialize) the TSS variable before using it, then, when all the threads are done that need it, you delete (deinitialize/free) it with this.
This doesn’t call any destructors! Those are all called by thrd_exit()!
Returns nothing!
This is a general-purpose TSS example. Note the TSS variable is deleted near the bottom of main().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <threads.h>
tss_t str;
void some_function(void)
{
// Retrieve the per-thread value of this string
char *tss_string = tss_get(str);
// And print it
printf("TSS string: %s\n", tss_string);
}
int run(void *arg)
{
int serial = *(int*)arg; // Get this thread's serial number
free(arg);
// malloc() space to hold the data for this thread
char *s = malloc(64);
sprintf(s, "thread %d! :)", serial); // Happy little string
// Set this TSS variable to point at the string
tss_set(str, s);
// Call a function that will get the variable
some_function();
return 0; // Equivalent to thrd_exit(0); fires destructors
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 15
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
// Make a new TSS variable, the free() function is the destructor
tss_create(&str, free);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
int *n = malloc(sizeof *n); // Holds a thread serial number
*n = i;
thrd_create(t + i, run, n);
}
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
}
// And all threads are done, so let's free this
tss_delete(str); // <-- DELETE TSS VARIABLE!
}Output:
TSS string: thread 0! :)
TSS string: thread 2! :)
TSS string: thread 1! :)
TSS string: thread 5! :)
TSS string: thread 3! :)
TSS string: thread 6! :)
TSS string: thread 4! :)
TSS string: thread 7! :)
TSS string: thread 8! :)
TSS string: thread 9! :)
TSS string: thread 10! :)
TSS string: thread 13! :)
TSS string: thread 12! :)
TSS string: thread 11! :)
TSS string: thread 14! :)tss_create(), tss_set(), tss_get(), thrd_exit()
tss_get()Get thread-specific data
#include <threads.h>
void *tss_get(tss_t key);Once you’ve set a variable with tss_set(), you can retrieve the value with tss_get()—just pass in the key and you’ll get a pointer to the value back.
Don’t call this from a destructor.
Returns the value stored for the given key, or NULL if there’s trouble.
This is a general-purpose TSS example. Note the TSS variable is retrieved in some_function(), below.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <threads.h>
tss_t str;
void some_function(void)
{
// Retrieve the per-thread value of this string
char *tss_string = tss_get(str); // <-- GET THE VALUE
// And print it
printf("TSS string: %s\n", tss_string);
}
int run(void *arg)
{
int serial = *(int*)arg; // Get this thread's serial number
free(arg);
// malloc() space to hold the data for this thread
char *s = malloc(64);
sprintf(s, "thread %d! :)", serial); // Happy little string
// Set this TSS variable to point at the string
tss_set(str, s);
// Call a function that will get the variable
some_function();
return 0; // Equivalent to thrd_exit(0); fires destructors
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 15
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
// Make a new TSS variable, the free() function is the destructor
tss_create(&str, free);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
int *n = malloc(sizeof *n); // Holds a thread serial number
*n = i;
thrd_create(t + i, run, n);
}
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
}
// And all threads are done, so let's free this
tss_delete(str);
}Output:
TSS string: thread 0! :)
TSS string: thread 2! :)
TSS string: thread 1! :)
TSS string: thread 5! :)
TSS string: thread 3! :)
TSS string: thread 6! :)
TSS string: thread 4! :)
TSS string: thread 7! :)
TSS string: thread 8! :)
TSS string: thread 9! :)
TSS string: thread 10! :)
TSS string: thread 13! :)
TSS string: thread 12! :)
TSS string: thread 11! :)
TSS string: thread 14! :)tss_set()Set thread-specific data
#include <threads.h>
int tss_set(tss_t key, void *val);Once you’ve set up your TSS variable with tss_create(), you can set it on a per thread basis with tss_set().
key is the identifier for this data, and val is a pointer to it.
The destructor specified in tss_create() will be called for the value set when the thread exits.
Also, if there’s a destructor and there is already at value for this key in place, the destructor will not be called for the already-existing value. In fact, this function will never cause a destructor to be called. So you’re on your own, there—best clean up the old value before overwriting it with the new one.
Returns thrd_success when happy, and thrd_error when not.
This is a general-purpose TSS example. Note the TSS variable is set in run(), below.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <threads.h>
tss_t str;
void some_function(void)
{
// Retrieve the per-thread value of this string
char *tss_string = tss_get(str);
// And print it
printf("TSS string: %s\n", tss_string);
}
int run(void *arg)
{
int serial = *(int*)arg; // Get this thread's serial number
free(arg);
// malloc() space to hold the data for this thread
char *s = malloc(64);
sprintf(s, "thread %d! :)", serial); // Happy little string
// Set this TSS variable to point at the string
tss_set(str, s); // <-- SET THE TSS VARIABLE
// Call a function that will get the variable
some_function();
return 0; // Equivalent to thrd_exit(0); fires destructors
}
#define THREAD_COUNT 15
int main(void)
{
thrd_t t[THREAD_COUNT];
// Make a new TSS variable, the free() function is the destructor
tss_create(&str, free);
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
int *n = malloc(sizeof *n); // Holds a thread serial number
*n = i;
thrd_create(t + i, run, n);
}
for (int i = 0; i < THREAD_COUNT; i++) {
thrd_join(t[i], NULL);
}
// And all threads are done, so let's free this
tss_delete(str);
}Output:
TSS string: thread 0! :)
TSS string: thread 2! :)
TSS string: thread 1! :)
TSS string: thread 5! :)
TSS string: thread 3! :)
TSS string: thread 6! :)
TSS string: thread 4! :)
TSS string: thread 7! :)
TSS string: thread 8! :)
TSS string: thread 9! :)
TSS string: thread 10! :)
TSS string: thread 13! :)
TSS string: thread 12! :)
TSS string: thread 11! :)
TSS string: thread 14! :)<time.h> Date and Time Functions| Function | Description |
|---|---|
clock() |
How much processor time has been used by this process |
difftime() |
Compute the difference between two times |
mktime() |
Convert a struct tm into a time_t |
time() |
Get the current calendar time |
timespec_get() |
Get a higher resolution time, probably now |
asctime() |
Return a human-readable version of a struct tm |
ctime() |
Return a human-readable version of a time_t |
gmtime() |
Convert a calendar time into a UTC broken-down time |
localtime() |
Convert a calendar time into a broken-down local time |
strftime() |
Formatted date and time output |
When it comes to time and C, there are two main types to look for:
time_t holds a calendar time. This is an potentially opaque numeric type that represents an absolute time that can be converted to UTC69 or local time.
struct tm holds a broken-down time. This has things like the day of the week, the day of the month, the hour, the minute, the second, etc.
On POSIX systems and Windows, time_t is an integer and represents the number of seconds that have elapsed since January 1, 1970 at 00:00 UTC.
A struct tm contains the following fields:
struct tm {
int tm_sec; // seconds after the minute -- [0, 60]
int tm_min; // minutes after the hour -- [0, 59]
int tm_hour; // hours since midnight -- [0, 23]
int tm_mday; // day of the month -- [1, 31]
int tm_mon; // months since January -- [0, 11]
int tm_year; // years since 1900
int tm_wday; // days since Sunday -- [0, 6]
int tm_yday; // days since January 1 -- [0, 365]
int tm_isdst; // Daylight Saving Time flag
};You can convert between the two with mktime(), gmtime(), and localtime().
You can print time information to strings with ctime(), asctime(), and strftime().
asctime(), ctime(): These two functions return a pointer to a static memory region. They both might return the same pointer. If you need thread safety, you’ll need a mutex across them. If you need both results at once, strcpy() one of them out.
All these problems with asctime() and ctime() can be avoided by using the more flexible and thread-safe strftime() function instead.
localtime(), gmtime(): These other two functions also return a pointer to a static memory region. They both might return the same pointer. If you need thread safety, you’ll need a mutex across them. If you need both results at once, copy the struct to another.
clock()How much processor time has been used by this process
#include <time.h>
clock_t clock(void);Your processor is juggling a lot of things right now. Just because a process has been alive for 20 minutes doesn’t mean that it used 20 minutes of “CPU time”.
Most of the time your average process spends asleep, and that doesn’t count toward the CPU time spent.
This function returns an opaque type representing the number of “clock ticks”70 the process has spent in operation.
You can get the number of seconds out of that by dividing by the macro CLOCKS_PER_SEC. This is an integer, so you will have to cast part of the expression to a floating type to get a fractional time.
Note that this is not the “wall clock time” of the program. If you want to get that loosely use time() and difftime() (which might only offer 1-second resolution) or timespec_get() (which might only also offer low resolution, but at least it might go to nanosecond level).
Returns the amount of CPU time spent by this process. This comes back in a form that can be divided by CLOCKS_PER_SEC to determine the time in seconds.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
// Deliberately naive Fibonacci
long long int fib(long long int n) {
if (n <= 1) return n;
return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2);
}
int main(void)
{
printf("The 42nd Fibonacci Number is %lld\n", fib(42));
printf("CPU time: %f\n", clock() / (double)CLOCKS_PER_SEC);
}Output on my system:
The 42nd Fibonacci Number is 267914296
CPU time: 1.863078time(), difftime(), timespec_get()
difftime()Compute the difference between two times
#include <time.h>
double difftime(time_t time1, time_t time0);Since the time_t type is technically opaque, you can’t just straight-up subtract to get the difference between two of them71. Use this function to do it.
There is no guarantee as to the resolution of this difference, but it’s probably to the second.
Returns the difference between two time_ts in seconds.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
int main(void)
{
// April 12, 1982 and change
struct tm time_a = { .tm_year=82, .tm_mon=3, .tm_mday=12,
.tm_hour=4, .tm_min=00, .tm_sec=04, .tm_isdst=-1,
};
// November 15, 2020 and change
struct tm time_b = { .tm_year=120, .tm_mon=10, .tm_mday=15,
.tm_hour=16, .tm_min=27, .tm_sec=00, .tm_isdst=-1,
};
time_t cal_a = mktime(&time_a);
time_t cal_b = mktime(&time_b);
double diff = difftime(cal_b, cal_a);
double years = diff / 60 / 60 / 24 / 365.2425; // close enough
printf("%f seconds (%f years) between events\n", diff, years);
}Output:
1217996816.000000 seconds (38.596783 years) between eventsmktime()Convert a struct tm into a time_t
#include <time.h>
time_t mktime(struct tm *timeptr);If you have a local date and time and want it converted to a time_t (so that you can difftime() it or whatever), you can convert it with this function.
Basically you fill out the fields in your struct tm in local time and mktime() will convert those to the UTC time_t equivalent.
A couple notes:
Don’t bother filling out tm_wday or tm_yday. mktime() will fill these out for you.
You can set tm_isdst to 0 to indicate your time isn’t Daylight Saving Time (DST), 1 to indicate it is, and -1 to have mktime() fill it in according to your locale’s preference.
If you need input in UTC, see the non-standard functions timegm()72 for Unix-likes and _mkgmtime()73 for Windows.
Returns the local time in the struct tm as a time_t calendar time.
Returns (time_t)(-1) on error.
In the following example, we have mktime() tell us if that time was DST or not.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
int main(void)
{
struct tm broken_down_time = {
.tm_year=82, // years since 1900
.tm_mon=3, // months since January -- [0, 11]
.tm_mday=12, // day of the month -- [1, 31]
.tm_hour=4, // hours since midnight -- [0, 23]
.tm_min=00, // minutes after the hour -- [0, 59]
.tm_sec=04, // seconds after the minute -- [0, 60]
.tm_isdst=-1, // Daylight Saving Time flag
};
time_t calendar_time = mktime(&broken_down_time);
char *days[] = {"Sunday", "Monday", "Tuesday",
"Wednesday", "Furzeday", "Friday", "Saturday"};
// This will print what was in broken_down_time
printf("Local time : %s", asctime(localtime(&calendar_time)));
printf("Is DST : %d\n", broken_down_time.tm_isdst);
printf("Day of week: %s\n\n", days[broken_down_time.tm_wday]);
// This will print UTC for the local time, above
printf("UTC : %s", asctime(gmtime(&calendar_time)));
}Output (for me in Pacific Time—UTC is 8 hours ahead):
Local time : Mon Apr 12 04:00:04 1982
Is DST : 0
Day of week: Monday
UTC : Mon Apr 12 12:00:04 1982time()Get the current calendar time
#include <time.h>
time_t time(time_t *timer);Returns the current calendar time right now. I mean, now. No, now!
If timer is not NULL, it gets loaded with the current time, as well.
This can be converted into a struct tm with localtime() or gmtime(), or printed directly with ctime().
Returns the current calendar time. Also loads timer with the current time if it’s not NULL.
Or returns (time_t)(-1) if the time isn’t available because you’ve fallen out of the space-time continuum and/or the system doesn’t support times.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
int main(void)
{
time_t now = time(NULL);
printf("The local time is %s", ctime(&now));
}Example output:
The local time is Mon Mar 1 18:45:14 2021localtime(), gmtime(), ctime()
timespec_get()Get a higher resolution time, probably now
#include <time.h>
int timespec_get(struct timespec *ts, int base);This function loads the current time UTC (unless directed otherwise) into the given struct timespec, ts.
That structure has two fields:
struct timespec {
time_t tv_sec; // Whole seconds
long tv_nsec; // Nanoseconds, 0-999999999
}Nanoseconds are billionths of a second. You can divide by 1000000000.0 to convert to seconds.
The base parameter has only one defined value, by the spec: TIME_UTC. So portably make it that. This will load ts with the current time in seconds since a system-defined Epoch74, often January 1, 1970 at 00:00 UTC.
Your implementation might define other values for base.
When base is TIME_UTC, loads ts with the current UTC time.
On success, returns base, valid values for which will always be non-zero. On error, returns 0.
struct timespec ts;
timespec_get(&ts, TIME_UTC);
printf("%ld s, %ld ns\n", ts.tv_sec, ts.tv_nsec);
double float_time = ts.tv_sec + ts.tv_nsec/1000000000.0;
printf("%f seconds since epoch\n", float_time);Example output:
1614654187 s, 825540756 ns
1614654187.825541 seconds since epochHere’s a helper function to add values to a struct timespec that handles negative values and nanosecond overflow.
#include <stdlib.h>
// Add delta seconds and delta nanoseconds to ts.
// Negative values are allowed. Each component is added individually.
//
// Subtract 1.5 seconds from the current value:
//
// timespec_add(&ts, -1, -500000000L);
struct timespec *timespec_add(struct timespec *ts, long dsec, long dnsec)
{
long sec = (long)ts->tv_sec + dsec;
long nsec = ts->tv_nsec + dnsec;
ldiv_t qr = ldiv(nsec, 1000000000L);
if (qr.rem < 0) {
nsec = 1000000000L + qr.rem;
sec += qr.quot - 1;
} else {
nsec = qr.rem;
sec += qr.quot;
}
ts->tv_sec = sec;
ts->tv_nsec = nsec;
return ts;
}And here are some functions to convert from long double to struct timespec and back, just in case you like thinking in decimals. This is more limited in significant figures than using the integer values.
#include <math.h>
// Convert a struct timespec into a long double
long double timespec_to_ld(struct timespec *ts)
{
return ts->tv_sec + ts->tv_nsec / 1000000000.0;
}
// Convert a long double to a struct timespec
struct timespec ld_to_timespec(long double t)
{
long double f;
struct timespec ts;
ts.tv_nsec = modfl(t, &f) * 1000000000L;
ts.tv_sec = f;
return ts;
}time(), mtx_timedlock(), cnd_timedwait()
asctime()Return a human-readable version of a struct tm
#include <time.h>
char *asctime(const struct tm *timeptr)This takes a time in a struct tm and returns a string with that date in the form:
Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973with a newline included at the end, rather unhelpfully. (strftime() will give you more flexibility.)
It’s just like ctime(), except it takes a struct tm instead of a time_t.
WARNING: This function returns a pointer to a static char* region that isn’t thread-safe and might be shared with the ctime() function. If you need thread safety, use strftime() or use a mutex that covers ctime() and asctime().
Behavior is undefined for:
timeptr are out of rangeReturns a pointer to the human-readable date string.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
int main(void)
{
time_t now = time(NULL);
printf("Local: %s", asctime(localtime(&now)));
printf("UTC : %s", asctime(gmtime(&now)));
}Sample output:
Local: Mon Mar 1 21:17:34 2021
UTC : Tue Mar 2 05:17:34 2021ctime(), localtime(), gmtime()
ctime()Return a human-readable version of a time_t
#include <time.h>
char *ctime(const time_t *timer);This takes a time in a time_t and returns a string with the local time and date in the form:
Sun Sep 16 01:03:52 1973with a newline included at the end, rather unhelpfully. (strftime() will give you more flexibility.)
It’s just like asctime(), except it takes a time_t instead of a struct tm.
WARNING: This function returns a pointer to a static char* region that isn’t thread-safe and might be shared with the asctime() function. If you need thread safety, use strftime() or use a mutex that covers ctime() and asctime().
Behavior is undefined for:
timeptr are out of rangeA pointer to the human-readable local time and data string.
Sample output:
Local: Mon Mar 1 21:32:23 2021gmtime()Convert a calendar time into a UTC broken-down time
#include <time.h>
struct tm *gmtime(const time_t *timer);If you have a time_t, you can run it through this function to get a struct tm back full of the corresponding broken-down UTC time information.
This is just like localtime(), except it does UTC instead of local time.
Once you have that struct tm, you can feed it to strftime() to print it out.
WARNING: This function returns a pointer to a static struct tm* region that isn’t thread-safe and might be shared with the localtime() function. If you need thread safety use a mutex that covers gmtime() and localtime().
Returns a pointer to the broken-down UTC time, or NULL if it can’t be obtained.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
int main(void)
{
time_t now = time(NULL);
printf("UTC : %s", asctime(gmtime(&now)));
printf("Local: %s", asctime(localtime(&now)));
}Sample output:
UTC : Tue Mar 2 05:40:05 2021
Local: Mon Mar 1 21:40:05 2021localtime(), asctime(), strftime()
localtime()Convert a calendar time into a broken-down local time
#include <time.h>
struct tm *localtime(const time_t *timer);If you have a time_t, you can run it through this function to get a struct tm back full of the corresponding broken-down local time information.
This is just like gmtime(), except it does local time instead of UTC.
Once you have that struct tm, you can feed it to strftime() to print it out.
WARNING: This function returns a pointer to a static struct tm* region that isn’t thread-safe and might be shared with the gmtime() function. If you need thread safety use a mutex that covers gmtime() and localtime().
Returns a pointer to the broken-down local time, or NULL if it can’t be obtained.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
int main(void)
{
time_t now = time(NULL);
printf("Local: %s", asctime(localtime(&now)));
printf("UTC : %s", asctime(gmtime(&now)));
}Sample output:
Local: Mon Mar 1 21:40:05 2021
UTC : Tue Mar 2 05:40:05 2021gmtime(), asctime(), strftime()
strftime()Formatted date and time output
#include <time.h>
size_t strftime(char * restrict s, size_t maxsize,
const char * restrict format,
const struct tm * restrict timeptr);This is the sprintf() of date and time functions. It’ll take a struct tm and produce a string in just about whatever form you desire, for example:
2021-03-01
Monday, March 1 at 9:54 PM
It's Monday!It’s a super flexible version of asctime(). And thread-safe, besides, since it doesn’t rely on a static buffer to hold the results.
Basically what you do is give it a destination, s, and its max size in bytes in maxsize. Also, provide a format string that’s analogous to printf()’s format string, but with different format specifiers. And lastly, a struct tm with the broken-down time information to use for printing.
The format string works like this, for example:
"It's %A, %B %d!"Which produces:
It's Monday, March 1!The %A is the full day-of-week name, the %B is the full month name, and the %d is the day of the month. strftime() substitutes the right thing to produce the result. Brilliant!
So what are all the format specifiers? Glad you asked!
I’m going to be lazy and just drop this table in right from the spec.
| Specifier | Description |
|---|---|
%a |
Locale’s abbreviated weekday name. [tm_wday] |
%A |
Locale’s full weekday name. [tm_wday] |
%b |
Locale’s abbreviated month name. [tm_mon] |
%B |
Locale’s full month name. [tm_mon] |
%c |
Locale’s appropriate date and time representation. |
%C |
Year divided by 100 and truncated to an integer, as a decimal number (00–99). [tm_year] |
%d |
Day of the month as a decimal number (01–31). [tm_mday] |
%D |
Equivalent to "%m/%d/%y". [tm_mon, tm_mday, tm_year] |
%e |
Day of the month as a decimal number (1–31); a single digit is preceded by a space. [tm_mday] |
%F |
Equivalent to “%Y-%m-%d” (the ISO 8601 date format). [tm_year, tm_mon, tm_mday] |
%g |
Last 2 digits of the week-based year (see below) as a decimal number (00–99). [tm_year, tm_wday, tm_yday] |
%G |
Week-based year (see below) as a decimal number (e.g., 1997). [tm_year, tm_wday, tm_yday] |
%h |
Equivalent to “%b”. [tm_mon] |
%H |
Hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number (00–23). [tm_hour] |
%I |
Hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number (01–12). [tm_hour] |
%j |
Day of the year as a decimal number (001–366). [tm_yday] |
%m |
Month as a decimal number (01–12). |
%M |
Minute as a decimal number (00–59). [tm_min] |
%n |
A new-line character. |
%p |
Locale’s equivalent of the AM/PM designations associated with a 12-hour clock. [tm_hour] |
%r |
Locale’s 12-hour clock time. [tm_hour, tm_min, tm_sec] |
%R |
Equivalent to "%H:%M". [tm_hour, tm_min] |
%S |
Second as a decimal number (00–60). [tm_sec] |
%t |
A horizontal-tab character. |
%T |
Equivalent to "%H:%M:%S" (the ISO 8601 time format). [tm_hour, tm_min, tm_sec] |
%u |
ISO 8601 weekday as a decimal number (1–7), where Monday is 1. [tm_wday] |
%U |
Week number of the year (the first Sunday as the first day of week 1) as a decimal number (00–53). [tm_year, tm_wday, tm_yday] |
%V |
ISO 8601 week number (see below) as a decimal number (01–53). [tm_year, tm_wday, tm_yday] |
%w |
Weekday as a decimal number (0–6), where Sunday is 0. |
%W |
Week number of the year (the first Monday as the first day of week 1) as a decimal number (00–53). [tm_year, tm_wday, tm_yday] |
%x |
Locale’s appropriate date representation. |
%X |
Locale’s appropriate time representation. |
%y |
Last 2 digits of the year as a decimal number (00–99). [tm_year] |
%Y |
Year as a decimal number (e.g., 1997). [tm_year] |
%z |
Offset from UTC in the ISO 8601 format "-0430" (meaning 4 hours 30 minutes behind UTC, west of Greenwich), or by no characters if no time zone is determinable. [tm_isdst] |
%Z |
Locale’s time zone name or abbreviation, or by no characters if no time zone is determinable. [tm_isdst] |
%% |
A plain ol’ % |
Phew. That’s love.
%G, %g, and %v are a little funky in that they use something called the ISO 8601 week-based year. I’d never heard of it. But, again stealing from the spec, these are the rules:
%g,%G, and%Vgive values according to the ISO 8601 week-based year. In this system, weeks begin on a Monday and week 1 of the year is the week that includes January 4th, which is also the week that includes the first Thursday of the year, and is also the first week that contains at least four days in the year. If the first Monday of January is the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th, the preceding days are part of the last week of the preceding year; thus, for Saturday 2nd January 1999,%Gis replaced by1998and%Vis replaced by53. If December 29th, 30th, or 31st is a Monday, it and any following days are part of week 1 of the following year. Thus, for Tuesday 30th December 1997,%Gis replaced by1998and%Vis replaced by01.
Learn something new every day! If you want to know more, Wikipedia has a page on it75.
If you’re in the “C” locale, the specifiers produce the following (again, stolen from the spec):
| Specifier | Description |
|---|---|
%a |
The first three characters of %A. |
%A |
One of Sunday, Monday, … , Saturday. |
%b |
The first three characters of %B. |
%B |
One of January, February, … , December. |
%c |
Equivalent to %a %b %e %T %Y. |
%p |
One of AM or PM. |
%r |
Equivalent to %I:%M:%S %p. |
%x |
Equivalent to %m/%d/%y. |
%X |
Equivalent to %T. |
%Z |
Implementation-defined. |
There are additional variants of the format specifiers that indicate you want to use a locale’s alternative format. These don’t exist for all locales. It’s one of the format specifies above, with either an E or O prefix:
%Ec %EC %Ex %EX %Ey %EY %Od %Oe %OH %OI
%Om %OM %OS %Ou %OU %OV %Ow %OW %OyThe E and O prefixes are ignored in the “C” locale.
Returns the total number of bytes put into the result string, not including the NUL terminator.
If the result doesn’t fit in the string, zero is returned and the value in s is indeterminate.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
int main(void)
{
char s[128];
time_t now = time(NULL);
// %c: print date as per current locale
strftime(s, sizeof s, "%c", localtime(&now));
puts(s); // Sun Feb 28 22:29:00 2021
// %A: full weekday name
// %B: full month name
// %d: day of the month
strftime(s, sizeof s, "%A, %B %d", localtime(&now));
puts(s); // Sunday, February 28
// %I: hour (12 hour clock)
// %M: minute
// %S: second
// %p: AM or PM
strftime(s, sizeof s, "It's %I:%M:%S %p", localtime(&now));
puts(s); // It's 10:29:00 PM
// %F: ISO 8601 yyyy-mm-dd
// %T: ISO 8601 hh:mm:ss
// %z: ISO 8601 time zone offset
strftime(s, sizeof s, "ISO 8601: %FT%T%z", localtime(&now));
puts(s); // ISO 8601: 2021-02-28T22:29:00-0800
}<uchar.h> Unicode utility functions| Function | Description |
|---|---|
c16rtomb() |
Convert a char16_t to a multibyte character |
c32rtomb() |
Convert a char32_t to a multibyte character |
mbrtoc16() |
Convert a multibyte character to a char16_t |
mbrtoc32() |
Convert a multibyte character to a char32_t |
These functions are restartable, meaning multiple threads can safely call them at once. They handle this by having their own conversion state variable (of type mbstate_t) per call.
This header file defines four types.
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
char16_t |
Type to hold 16-bit characters |
char32_t |
Type to hold 32-bit characters |
mbstate_t |
Holds the conversion state for restartable funcitons (also defined in <wchar.h>) |
size_t |
To hold various counts (also defined in <stddef.h>) |
String literals for the character types are u for char16_t and U for char32_t.
char16_t *str1 = u"Hello, world!";
char32_t *str2 = U"Hello, world!";
char16_t *chr1 = u'A';
char32_t *chr2 = U'B';Note that char16_t and char32_t might contain Unicode. Or not. If __STDC_UTF_16__ or __STDC_UTF_32__ is defined as 1, then char16_t and char32_t use Unicode, respectively. Otherwise they don’t and the actual value stored depend on the locale. And if you’re not using Unicode, you have my commiserations.
This header file doesn’t exist on OS X—bummer. If you just want the types, you can:
#include <stdint.h>
typedef int_least16_t char16_t;
typedef int_least32_t char32_t;But if you also want the functions, that’s all on you.
mbrtoc16() mbrtoc32()
Convert a multibyte character to a char16_t or char32_t restartably
#include <uchar.h>
size_t mbrtoc16(char16_t * restrict pc16, const char * restrict s, size_t n,
mbstate_t * restrict ps);
size_t mbrtoc32(char32_t * restrict pc32, const char * restrict s, size_t n,
mbstate_t * restrict ps);Given a source string s and a destination buffer pc16 (or pc32 for mbrtoc32()), convert the first character of the source to char16_ts (or char32_ts for mbrtoc32()).
Basically you have a regular character and you want it as char16_t or char32_t. Use these functions to do it. Note that only one character is converted no matter how many characters in s.
As the functions scan s, you don’t want them to overrun the end. So you pass in n as the maximum number of bytes to inspect. The functions will quit after that many bytes or when they have a complete multibyte character, whichever comes first.
Since they’re restartable, pass in a conversion state variable for the functions to do their work.
And the result will be placed in pc16 (or pc32 for mbrtoc32()).
When successful this function returns a number between 1 and n inclusive representing the number of bytes that made up the multibyte character.
Or, also in the success category, they can return 0 if the source character is the NUL character (value 0).
When not entirely successful, they can return a variety of codes. These are all of type size_t, but negative values cast to that type.
| Return Value | Description |
|---|---|
(size_t)(-1) |
Encoding error—this isn’t a valid sequence of bytes. errno is set to EILSEQ. |
(size_t)(-2) |
n bytes were examined and were a partial valid character, but not a complete one. |
(size_t)(-3) |
A subsequent value of a character that can’t be represented as a single value. See below. |
Case (size_t)(-3) is an odd one. Basically there are some characters that can’t be represented with 16 bits and so can’t be stored in a char16_t. These characters are store in something called (in the Unicode world) surrogate pairs. That is, there are two 16-bit values back to back that represent a larger Unicode value.
For example, if you want to read the Unicode character \U0001fbc5 (which is a stick figure76—I’m just not putting it in the text because my font doesn’t render it) that’s more than 16 bits. But each call to mbrtoc16() only returns a single char16_t!
So subsequent calls to mbrtoc16() resolves the next value in the surrogate pair and returns (size_t)(-3) to let you know this has happened.
You can also pass NULL for pc16 or pc32. This will cause no result to be stored, but you can use it if you’re only interested in the return value from the functions.
Finally, if you pass NULL for s, the call is equivalent to:
mbrtoc16(NULL, "", 1, ps)Since the character is a NUL in that case, this has the effect of setting the state in ps to the initial conversion state.
Normal use case example where we get the first two character values from the multibyte string "€Zillion":
#include <uchar.h>
#include <stdio.h> // for printf()
#include <locale.h> // for setlocale()
#include <string.h> // for memset()
int main(void)
{
char *s = "\u20acZillion"; // 20ac is "€"
char16_t pc16;
size_t r;
mbstate_t mbs;
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
memset(&mbs, 0, sizeof mbs);
// Examine the next 8 bytes to see if there's a character in there
r = mbrtoc16(&pc16, s, 8, &mbs);
printf("%zu\n", r); // Prints a value >= 1 (3 in UTF-8 locale)
printf("%#x\n", pc16); // Prints 0x20ac for "€"
s += r; // Move to next character
// Examine the next 8 bytes to see if there's a character in there
r = mbrtoc16(&pc16, s, 8, &mbs);
printf("%zu\n", r); // Prints 1
printf("%#x\n", pc16); // Prints 0x5a for "Z"
}Example with a surrogate pair. In this case we read plenty to get the entire character, but the result must be stored in two char16_ts, requiring two calls to get them both.
#include <uchar.h>
#include <stdio.h> // for printf()
#include <string.h> // for memset()
#include <locale.h> // for setlocale()
int main(void)
{
char *s = "\U0001fbc5*"; // Stick figure glyph, more than 16 bits
char16_t pc16;
mbstate_t mbs;
size_t r;
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
memset(&mbs, 0, sizeof mbs);
r = mbrtoc16(&pc16, s, 8, &mbs);
printf("%zd\n", r); // r is 4 bytes in UTF-8 locale
printf("%#x\n", pc16); // First value of surrogate pair
s += r; // Move to next character
r = mbrtoc16(&pc16, s, 8, &mbs);
printf("%zd\n", r); // r is (size_t)(-3) here to indicate...
printf("%#x\n", pc16); // ...Second value of surrogate pair
// Since r is -3, it means we're still processing the same
// character, so DON'T move to the next character this time
//s += r; // Commented out
r = mbrtoc16(&pc16, s, 8, &mbs);
printf("%zd\n", r); // 1 byte for "*"
printf("%#x\n", pc16); // 0x2a for "*"
}Output on my system, indicating the first character is represented by the pair (0xd83e, 0xdfc5) and the second character is represented by 0x2a:
4
0xd83e
-3
0xdfc5
1
0x2ac16rtomb() c32rtomb()
Convert a char16_t or char32_t to a multibyte character restartably
#include <uchar.h>
size_t c16rtomb(char * restrict s, char16_t c16, mbstate_t * restrict ps);
size_t c32rtomb(char * restrict s, char32_t c32, mbstate_t * restrict ps);If you have a character in a char16_t or char32_t, use these functions to convert them into a multibyte character.
These functions figure out how many bytes are needed for the multibyte character in the current locale and stores them in the buffer pointed to by s.
But how big to make that buffer? Luckily there is a macro to help: it needs be no larger than MB_CUR_MAX.
As a special case, if s is NULL, it’s the same as calling
c16rtomb(buf, L'\0', ps); // or...
c32rtomb(buf, L'\0', ps);where buf is a buffer maintained by the system that you don’t have access to.
This has the effect of setting the ps state to the initial state.
Finally for surrogate pairs (where the character has been split into two char16_ts), you call this once with the first of the pair—at this point, the function will return 0. Then you call it again with the second of the pair, and the function will return the number of bytes and store the result in the array s.
Returns the number of bytes stored in the array pointed to by s.
Returns 0 if processing is not yet complete for the current character, as in the case of surrogate pairs.
If there is an encoding error, the functions return (size_t)(-1) and errno is set to EILSEQ.
#include <uchar.h>
#include <stdlib.h> // for MB_CUR_MAX
#include <stdio.h> // for printf()
#include <string.h> // for memset()
#include <locale.h> // for setlocale()
int main(void)
{
char16_t c16 = 0x20ac; // Unicode for Euro symbol
char dest[MB_CUR_MAX];
size_t r;
mbstate_t mbs;
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
memset(&mbs, 0, sizeof mbs); // Reset conversion state
// Convert
r = c16rtomb(dest, c16, &mbs);
printf("r == %zd\n", r); // r == 3 on my system
// And this should print a Euro symbol
printf("dest == \"%s\"\n", dest);
}Output on my system:
r == 3
dest == "€"This is a more complex example that converts a large-valued character in a multibyte string into a surrogate pair (as in the mbrtoc16() example, above) and then converts it back again into a multibyte string to print.
#include <uchar.h>
#include <stdlib.h> // for MB_CUR_MAX
#include <stdio.h> // for printf()
#include <string.h> // for memset()
#include <locale.h> // for setlocale()
int main(void)
{
char *src = "\U0001fbc5*"; // Stick figure glyph, more than 16 bits
char dest[MB_CUR_MAX];
char16_t surrogate0, surrogate1;
mbstate_t mbs;
size_t r;
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
memset(&mbs, 0, sizeof mbs); // Reset conversion state
// Get first surrogate character
r = mbrtoc16(&surrogate0, src, 8, &mbs);
// Get next surrogate character
src += r; // Move to next character
r = mbrtoc16(&surrogate1, src, 8, &mbs);
printf("Surrogate pair: %#x, %#x\n", surrogate0, surrogate1);
// Now reverse it
memset(&mbs, 0, sizeof mbs); // Reset conversion state
// Process first surrogate character
r = c16rtomb(dest, surrogate0, &mbs);
// r should be 0 at this point, because the character hasn't been
// processed yet. And dest won't have anything useful... yet!
printf("r == %zd\n", r); // r == 0
// Process second surrogate character
r = c16rtomb(dest, surrogate1, &mbs);
// Now we should be in business. r should have the number of
// bytes, and dest should hold the character.
printf("r == %zd\n", r); // r == 4 on my system
// And this should print a stick figure, if your font supports it
printf("dest == \"%s\"\n", dest);
}<wchar.h> Wide Character Handling| Function | Description |
|---|---|
btowc() |
Convert a single byte character to a wide character |
fgetwc() |
Get a wide character from a wide stream |
fgetws() |
Read a wide string from a wide stream |
fputwc() |
Write a wide character to a wide stream |
fputws() |
Write a wide string to a wide stream |
fwide() |
Get or set the orientation of the stream |
fwprintf() |
Formatted wide output to a wide stream |
fwscanf() |
Formatted wide input from a wide stream |
getwchar() |
Get a wide character from stdin |
getwc() |
Get a wide character from stdin |
mbrlen() |
Compute the number of bytes in a multibyte character restartably |
mbrtowc() |
Convert multibyte to wide characters restartably |
mbsinit() |
Test if an mbstate_t is in the initial conversion state |
mbsrtowcs() |
Convert a multibyte string to a wide character string restartably |
putwchar() |
Write a wide character to stdout |
putwc() |
Write a wide character to stdout |
swprintf() |
Formatted wide output to a wide string |
swscanf() |
Formatted wide input from a wide string |
ungetwc() |
Pushes a wide character back into the input stream |
vfwprintf() |
Variadic formatted wide output to a wide stream |
vfwscanf() |
Variadic formatted wide input from a wide stream |
vswprintf() |
Variadic formatted wide output to a wide string |
vswscanf() |
Variadic formatted wide input from a wide string |
vwprintf() |
Variadic formatted wide output |
vwscanf() |
Variadic formatted wide input |
wcscat() |
Concatenate wide strings dangerously |
wcschr() |
Find a wide character in a wide string |
wcscmp() |
Compare wide strings |
wcscoll() |
Compare two wide strings accounting for locale |
wcscpy() |
Copy a wide string dangerously |
wcscspn() |
Count characters not from a start at the front of a wide string |
wcsftime() |
Formatted date and time output |
wcslen() |
Returns the length of a wide string |
wcsncat() |
Concatenate wide strings more safely |
wcsncmp() |
Compare wide strings, length limited |
wcsncpy() |
Copy a wide string more safely |
wcspbrk() |
Search a wide string for one of a set of wide characters |
wcsrchr() |
Find a wide character in a wide string from the end |
wcsrtombs() |
Convert a wide character string to a multibyte string restartably |
wcsspn() |
Count characters from a set at the front of a wide string |
wcsstr() |
Find a wide string in another wide string |
wcstod() |
Convert a wide string to a double |
wcstof() |
Convert a wide string to a float |
wcstok() |
Tokenize a wide string |
wcstold() |
Convert a wide string to a long double |
wcstoll() |
Convert a wide string to a long long |
wcstol() |
Convert a wide string to a long |
wcstoull() |
Convert a wide string to an unsigned long long |
wcstoul() |
Convert a wide string to an unsigned long |
wcsxfrm() |
Transform a wide string for comparing based on locale |
wctob() |
Convert a wide character to a single byte character |
wctombr() |
Convert wide to multibyte characters restartably |
wmemcmp() |
Compare wide characters in memory |
wmemcpy() |
Copy wide character memory |
wmemmove() |
Copy wide character memory, potentially overlapping |
wprintf() |
Formatted wide output |
wscanf() |
Formatted wide input |
These are the wide character variants of the functions found in <stdio.h>.
Remember that you can’t mix-and-match multibyte output functions (like printf()) with wide character output functions (like wprintf()). The output stream has an orientation to either multibyte or wide that gets set on the first I/O call to that stream. (Or it can be set with fwide().)
So choose one or the other and stick with it.
And you can specify wide character constants and string literals by prefixing L to the front of it:
wchar_t *s = L"Hello, world!";
wchar_t c = L'B';This header also introduces a type wint_t that is used by the character I/O functions. It’s a type that can hold any single wide character, but also the macro WEOF to indicate wide end-of-file.
Finally, a note on the “restartable” functions that are included here. When conversion is happening, some encodings require C to keep track of some state about the progress of the conversion so far.
For a lot of the functions, C uses an internal variable for the state that is shared between function calls. The problem is if you’re writing multithreaded code, this state might get trampled by other threads.
To avoid this, each thread needs to maintain its own state in a variable of the opaque type mbstate_t. And the “restartable” functions allow you to pass in this state so that each thread can use their own.
wprintf(), fwprintf(), swprintf()
Formatted output with a wide string
#include <stdio.h> // For fwprintf()
#include <wchar.h>
int wprintf(const wchar_t * restrict format, ...);
int fwprintf(FILE * restrict stream, const wchar_t * restrict format, ...);
int swprintf(wchar_t * restrict s, size_t n,
const wchar_t * restrict format, ...);These are the wide versions of printf(), fprintf()](#man-printf), and [sprintf()`.
See those pages for exact substantial usage.
These are the same except the format string is a wide character string instead of a multibyte string.
And that swprintf() is analogous to snprintf() in that they both take the size of the destination array as an argument.
And one more thing: the precision specified for a %s specifier corresponds to the number of wide characters printed, not the number of bytes. If you know of other difference, let me know.
Returns the number of wide characters outputted, or -1 if there’s an error.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
char *mbs = "multibyte";
wchar_t *ws = L"wide";
wprintf(L"We're all wide for %s and %ls!\n", mbs, ws);
double pi = 3.14159265358979;
wprintf(L"pi = %f\n", pi);
}Output:
We're all wide for multibyte and wide!
pi = 3.141593wscanf() fwscanf() swscanf()
Scan a wide stream or wide string for formatted input
#include <stdio.h> // for fwscanf()
#include <wchar.h>
int wscanf(const wchar_t * restrict format, ...);
int fwscanf(FILE * restrict stream, const wchar_t * restrict format, ...);
int swscanf(const wchar_t * restrict s, const wchar_t * restrict format, ...);These are the wide variants of scanf(), fscanf(), and sscanf().
See the scanf() page for all the details.
Returns the number of items successfully scanned, or EOF on some kind of input failure.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
int quantity;
wchar_t item[100];
wprintf(L"Enter \"quantity: item\"\n");
if (wscanf(L"%d:%99ls", &quantity, item) != 2)
wprintf(L"Malformed input!\n");
else
wprintf(L"You entered: %d %ls\n", quantity, item);
}Output (input of 12: apples):
Enter "quantity: item"
12: apples
You entered: 12 applesvwprintf() vfwprintf() vswprintf()
wprintf() variants using variable argument lists (va_list)
#include <stdio.h> // For vfwprintf()
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int vwprintf(const wchar_t * restrict format, va_list arg);
int vswprintf(wchar_t * restrict s, size_t n,
const wchar_t * restrict format, va_list arg);
int vfwprintf(FILE * restrict stream, const wchar_t * restrict format,
va_list arg);These functions are the wide character variants of the vprintf(), functions. You can refer to that reference page for more details.
Returns the number of wide characters stored, or a negative value on error.
In this example, we make our own version of wprintf() called wlogger() that timestamps output. Notice how the calls to wlogger() have all the bells and whistles of wprintf().
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <wchar.h>
#include <time.h>
int wlogger(wchar_t *format, ...)
{
va_list va;
time_t now_secs = time(NULL);
struct tm *now = gmtime(&now_secs);
// Output timestamp in format "YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss : "
wprintf(L"%04d-%02d-%02d %02d:%02d:%02d : ",
now->tm_year + 1900, now->tm_mon + 1, now->tm_mday,
now->tm_hour, now->tm_min, now->tm_sec);
va_start(va, format);
int result = vwprintf(format, va);
va_end(va);
wprintf(L"\n");
return result;
}
int main(void)
{
int x = 12;
float y = 3.2;
wlogger(L"Hello!");
wlogger(L"x = %d and y = %.2f", x, y);
}Output:
2021-03-30 04:25:49 : Hello!
2021-03-30 04:25:49 : x = 12 and y = 3.20vwscanf(), vfwscanf(), vswscanf()
wscanf() variants using variable argument lists (va_list)
#include <stdio.h> // For vfwscanf()
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int vwscanf(const wchar_t * restrict format, va_list arg);
int vfwscanf(FILE * restrict stream, const wchar_t * restrict format,
va_list arg);
int vswscanf(const wchar_t * restrict s, const wchar_t * restrict format,
va_list arg);These are the wide counterparts to the vscanf() collection of functions. See their reference page for details.
Returns the number of items successfully scanned, or EOF on some kind of input failure.
I have to admit I was wracking my brain to think of when you’d ever want to use this. The best example I could find was one on Stack Overflow77 that error-checks the return value from scanf() against the expected. A variant of that is shown below.
#include <stdarg.h>
#include <wchar.h>
#include <assert.h>
int error_check_wscanf(int expected_count, wchar_t *format, ...)
{
va_list va;
va_start(va, format);
int count = vwscanf(format, va);
va_end(va);
// This line will crash the program if the condition is false:
assert(count == expected_count);
return count;
}
int main(void)
{
int a, b;
float c;
error_check_wscanf(3, L"%d, %d/%f", &a, &b, &c);
error_check_wscanf(2, L"%d", &a);
}getwc() fgetwc() getwchar()
Get a wide character from an input stream
#include <stdio.h> // For getwc() and fgetwc()
#include <wchar.h>
wint_t getwchar(void);
wint_t getwc(FILE *stream);
wint_t fgetwc(FILE *stream);These are the wide variants of fgetc().
fgetwc() and getwc() are identical except that getwc() might be implemented as a macro and is allowed to evaluate stream multiple times.
getwchar() is identical to getwc() with stream set to stdin.
I don’t know why you’d ever use getwc() instead of fgetwc(), but if anyone knows, drop me a line.
Returns the next wide character in the input stream. Return WEOF on end-of-file or error.
If an I/O error occurs, the error flag is also set on the stream.
If an invalid byte sequence is encountered, errno is set to ILSEQ.
Reads all the characters from a file, outputting only the letter ’b’s it finds in the file:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
wint_t c;
fp = fopen("datafile.txt", "r"); // error check this!
// this while-statement assigns into c, and then checks against EOF:
while((c = fgetc(fp)) != WEOF)
if (c == L'b')
fputwc(c, stdout);
fclose(fp);
}fgetws()Read a wide string from a file
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
wchar_t *fgetws(wchar_t * restrict s, int n, FILE * restrict stream);This is the wide version of fgets(). See its reference page for details.
A wide NUL character is used to terminate the string.
Returns s on success, or a NULL pointer on end-of-file or error.
The following example reads lines from a file and prepends them with numbers:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
#define BUF_SIZE 1024
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
wchar_t buf[BUF_SIZE];
fp = fopen("textfile.txt", "r"); // error check this!
int line_count = 0;
while ((fgetws(buf, BUF_SIZE, fp)) != NULL)
wprintf(L"%04d: %ls", ++line_count, buf);
fclose(fp);
}Example output for a file with these lines in them (without the prepended numbers):
0001: line 1
0002: line 2
0003: something
0004: line 4putwchar() putwc() fputwc()
Write a single wide character to the console or to a file
#include <stdio.h> // For putwc() and fputwc()
#include <wchar.h>
wint_t putwchar(wchar_t c);
wint_t putwc(wchar_t c, FILE *stream);
wint_t fputwc(wchar_t c, FILE *stream);These are the wide character equivalents to the ‘fputc()’ group of functions. You can find more information ‘in that reference section’.
fputwc() and putwc() are identical except that putwc() might be implemented as a macro and is allowed to evaluate stream multiple times.
putwchar() is identical to putwc() with stream set to stdin.
I don’t know why you’d ever use putwc() instead of fputwc(), but if anyone knows, drop me a line.
Returns the wide character written, or WEOF on error.
If it’s an I/O error, the error flag will be set for the stream.
If it’s an encoding error, errno will be set to EILSEQ.
Read all characters from a file, outputting only the letter ’b’s it finds in the file:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
FILE *fp;
wint_t c;
fp = fopen("datafile.txt", "r"); // error check this!
// this while-statement assigns into c, and then checks against EOF:
while((c = fgetc(fp)) != WEOF)
if (c == L'b')
fputwc(c, stdout);
fclose(fp);
}fputws()Write a wide string to a file
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int fputws(const wchar_t * restrict s, FILE * restrict stream);This is the wide version of fputs().
Pass in a wide string and an output stream, and it will so be written.
Returns a non-negative value on success, or EOF on error.
fwide()Get or set the orientation of the stream
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int fwide(FILE *stream, int mode);Streams can be either wide-oriented (meaning the wide functions are in use) or byte-oriented (that the regular multibyte functions are in use). Or, before an orientation is chosen, unoriented.
There are two ways to set the orientation of an unoriented stream:
Implicitly: just use a function like printf() (byte oriented) or wprintf() (wide oriented), and the orientation will be set.
Explicitly: use this function to set it.
You can set the orientation for the stream by passing different numbers to mode:
mode |
Description |
|---|---|
0 |
Do not alter the orientation |
-1 |
Set stream to byte-oriented |
1 |
Set stream to wide-oriented |
(I said -1 and 1 there, but really it could be any positive or negative number.)
Most people choose the wide or byte functions (printf() or wprintf()) and just start using them and never use fwide() to set the orientation.
And once the orientation is set, you can’t change it. So you can’t use fwide() for that, either.
So what can you use it for?
You can test to see what orientation a stream is in by passing 0 as the mode and checking the return value.
Returns greater than zero if the stream is wide-oriented.
Returns less than zero if the stream is byte-oriented.
Returns zero if the stream is unoriented.
Example setting to byte-oriented:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
printf("Hello world!\n"); // Implicitly set to byte
int mode = fwide(stdout, 0);
printf("Stream is %s-oriented\n", mode < 0? "byte": "wide");
}Output:
Hello world!
Stream is byte-orientedExample setting to wide-oriented:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wprintf(L"Hello world!\n"); // Implicitly set to wide
int mode = fwide(stdout, 0);
wprintf(L"Stream is %ls-oriented\n", mode < 0? L"byte": L"wide");
}Output:
Hello world!
Stream is wide-orientedungetwc()Pushes a wide character back into the input stream
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wchar.h>
wint_t ungetwc(wint_t c, FILE *stream);This is the wide character variant of ungetc().
It performs the reverse operation of fgetwc(), pushing a character back on the input stream.
The spec guarantees you can do this one time in a row. You can probably do it more times, but it’s up to the implementation. If you do too many calls without an intervening read, an error could be returned.
Setting the file position discards any characters pushed by ungetwc() without being subsequently read.
The end-of-file flag is cleared after a successful call.
Returns the value of the pushed character on success, or WEOF on failure.
This example reads a piece of punctuation, then everything after it up to the next piece of punctuation. It returns the leading punctuation, and stores the rest in a string.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <wctype.h>
#include <wchar.h>
wint_t read_punctstring(FILE *fp, wchar_t *s)
{
wint_t origpunct, c;
origpunct = fgetwc(fp);
if (origpunct == WEOF) // return EOF on end-of-file
return WEOF;
while (c = fgetwc(fp), !iswpunct(c) && c != WEOF)
*s++ = c; // save it in the string
*s = L'\0'; // nul-terminate the string
// if we read punctuation last, ungetc it so we can fgetc it next
// time:
if (iswpunct(c))
ungetwc(c, fp);
return origpunct;
}
int main(void)
{
wchar_t s[128];
wint_t c;
while ((c = read_punctstring(stdin, s)) != WEOF) {
wprintf(L"%lc: %ls\n", c, s);
}
}Sample Input:
!foo#bar*bazSample output:
!: foo
#: bar
*: bazwcstod() wcstof() wcstold()
Convert a wide string to a floating point number
#include <wchar.h>
double wcstod(const wchar_t * restrict nptr, wchar_t ** restrict endptr);
float wcstof(const wchar_t * restrict nptr, wchar_t ** restrict endptr);
long double wcstold(const wchar_t * restrict nptr, wchar_t ** restrict endptr);These are the wide counterparts to the strtod() family of functions. See their reference pages for details.
Returns the string converted to a floating point value.
Returns 0 if there’s no valid number in the string.
On overflow, returns an apporpriately-signed HUGE_VAL, HUGE_VALF. or HUGE_VALL depending on the return type, and errno is set to ERANGE.
On underflow, returns a number no greater than the smallest normalized positive number, appropriately signed. The implemention might set errno to ERANGE.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t *inp = L" 123.4567beej";
wchar_t *badchar;
double val = wcstod(inp, &badchar);
wprintf(L"Converted string to %f\n", val);
wprintf(L"Encountered bad characters: %ls\n", badchar);
val = wcstod(L"987.654321beej", NULL);
wprintf(L"Ignoring bad chars: %f\n", val);
val = wcstod(L"11.2233", &badchar);
if (*badchar == L'\0')
wprintf(L"No bad chars: %f\n", val);
else
wprintf(L"Found bad chars: %f, %ls\n", val, badchar);
}Output:
Converted string to 123.456700
Encountered bad characters: beej
Ignoring bad chars: 987.654321
No bad chars: 11.223300wcstol() wcstoll() wcstoul() wcstoull()
Convert a wide string to an integer value
#include <wchar.h>
long int wcstol(const wchar_t * restrict nptr,
wchar_t ** restrict endptr, int base);
long long int wcstoll(const wchar_t * restrict nptr,
wchar_t ** restrict endptr, int base);
unsigned long int wcstoul(const wchar_t * restrict nptr,
wchar_t ** restrict endptr, int base);
unsigned long long int wcstoull(const wchar_t * restrict nptr,
wchar_t ** restrict endptr, int base);These are the wide counterparts to the strtol() family of functions, so see their reference pages for the details.
Returns the integer value of the string.
If nothing can be found, 0 is returned.
If the result is out of range, the value returned is one of LONG_MIN, LONG_MAX, LLONG_MIN, LLONG_MAX, ULONG_MAX or ULLONG_MAX, as appropriate. And errno is set to ERANGE.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
// All output in decimal (base 10)
wprintf(L"%ld\n", wcstol(L"123", NULL, 0)); // 123
wprintf(L"%ld\n", wcstol(L"123", NULL, 10)); // 123
wprintf(L"%ld\n", wcstol(L"101010", NULL, 2)); // binary, 42
wprintf(L"%ld\n", wcstol(L"123", NULL, 8)); // octal, 83
wprintf(L"%ld\n", wcstol(L"123", NULL, 16)); // hex, 291
wprintf(L"%ld\n", wcstol(L"0123", NULL, 0)); // octal, 83
wprintf(L"%ld\n", wcstol(L"0x123", NULL, 0)); // hex, 291
wchar_t *badchar;
long int x = wcstol(L" 1234beej", &badchar, 0);
wprintf(L"Value is %ld\n", x); // Value is 1234
wprintf(L"Bad chars at \"%ls\"\n", badchar); // Bad chars at "beej"
}Output:
123
123
42
83
291
83
291
Value is 1234
Bad chars at "beej"wcstod(), strtol(), errno, wcstoimax(), wcstoumax()
wcscpy() wcsncpy()
Copy a wide string
#include <wchar.h>
wchar_t *wcscpy(wchar_t * restrict s1, const wchar_t * restrict s2);
wchar_t *wcsncpy(wchar_t * restrict s1,
const wchar_t * restrict s2, size_t n);These are the wide versions of strcpy() and strncpy().
They’ll copy a string up to a wide NUL. Or, in the case of the safer wcsncpy(), until then or until n wide characters are copied.
If the string in s1 is shorter than n, wcsncpy() will pad s2 with wide NUL characters until the nth wide character is reached.
Even though wcsncpy() is safer because it will never overrun the end of s2 (assuming you set n correctly), it’s still unsafe a NUL is not found in s1 in the first n characters. In that case, s2 will not be NUL-terminated. Always make sure n is greater than the string length of s1!
Returns s1.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t *s1 = L"Hello!";
wchar_t s2[10];
wcsncpy(s2, s1, 10);
wprintf(L"\"%ls\"\n", s2); // "Hello!"
}wmemcpy(), wmemmove() strcpy(), strncpy()
wmemcpy() wmemmove()
Copy wide characters
#include <wchar.h>
wchar_t *wmemcpy(wchar_t * restrict s1,
const wchar_t * restrict s2, size_t n);
wchar_t *wmemmove(wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2, size_t n);These are the wide versions of memcpy() and memmove().
They copy n wide characters from s2 to s1.
They’re the same except that wmemmove() is guaranteed to work with overlapping memory regions, and wmemcpy() is not.
Both functions return the pointer s1.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t s[100] = L"Goats";
wchar_t t[100];
wmemcpy(t, s, 6); // Copy non-overlapping memory
wmemmove(s + 2, s, 6); // Copy overlapping memory
wprintf(L"s is \"%ls\"\n", s);
wprintf(L"t is \"%ls\"\n", t);
}Output:
s is "GoGoats"
t is "Goats"wcscpy(), wcsncpy(), memcpy(), memmove()
wcscat() wcsncat()
Concatenate wide strings
#include <wchar.h>
wchar_t *wcscat(wchar_t * restrict s1, const wchar_t * restrict s2);
wchar_t *wcsncat(wchar_t * restrict s1,
const wchar_t * restrict s2, size_t n);These are the wide variants of strcat() and strncat().
They concatenate s2 onto the end of s1.
They’re the same except wcsncat() gives you the option to limit the number of wide characters appended.
Note that wcsncat() always adds a NUL terminator to the end, even if n characters were appended. So be sure to leave room for that.
Both functions return the pointer s1.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t dest[30] = L"Hello";
wchar_t *src = L", World!";
wchar_t numbers[] = L"12345678";
wprintf(L"dest before strcat: \"%ls\"\n", dest); // "Hello"
wcscat(dest, src);
wprintf(L"dest after strcat: \"%ls\"\n", dest); // "Hello, world!"
wcsncat(dest, numbers, 3); // strcat first 3 chars of numbers
wprintf(L"dest after strncat: \"%ls\"\n", dest); // "Hello, world!123"
}wcscmp(), wcsncmp(), wmemcmp()
Compare wide strings or memory
#include <wchar.h>
int wcscmp(const wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2);
int wcsncmp(const wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2, size_t n);
int wmemcmp(const wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2, size_t n);These are the wide variants of memcmp(), strcmp(), and strncmp().
wcscmp() and wcsncmp() both compare strings until a NUL character.
wcsncmp() also has the additional restriction that it will only compare the first n characters.
wmemcmp() is like wcsncmp() except it won’t stop at a NUL.
The comparison is done against the character value (which might (or might not) be its Unicode code point).
Returns zero if both regions are equal.
Returns a negative number if the region pointed to by s1 is less than s2.
Returns a positive number if the region pointed to by s1 is greater than s2.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t *s1 = L"Muffin";
wchar_t *s2 = L"Muffin Sandwich";
wchar_t *s3 = L"Muffin";
wprintf(L"%d\n", wcscmp(L"Biscuits", L"Kittens")); // <0 since 'B' < 'K'
wprintf(L"%d\n", wcscmp(L"Kittens", L"Biscuits")); // >0 since 'K' > 'B'
if (wcscmp(s1, s2) == 0)
wprintf(L"This won't get printed because the strings differ\n");
if (wcscmp(s1, s3) == 0)
wprintf(L"This will print because s1 and s3 are the same\n");
// this is a little weird...but if the strings are the same, it'll
// return zero, which can also be thought of as "false". Not-false
// is "true", so (!wcscmp()) will be true if the strings are the
// same. yes, it's odd, but you see this all the time in the wild
// so you might as well get used to it:
if (!wcscmp(s1, s3))
wprintf(L"The strings are the same!\n");
if (!wcsncmp(s1, s2, 6))
wprintf(L"The first 6 characters of s1 and s2 are the same\n");
}Output:
-1
1
This will print because s1 and s3 are the same
The strings are the same!
The first 6 characters of s1 and s2 are the samewcscoll(), memcmp(), strcmp(), strncmp()
wcscoll()Compare two wide strings accounting for locale
#include <wchar.h>
int wcscoll(const wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2);This is the wide version of strcoll(). See that reference page for details.
This is slower than wcscmp(), so only use it if you need the locale-specific compare.
Returns zero if both regions are equal in this locale.
Returns a negative number if the region pointed to by s1 is less than s2 in this locale.
Returns a positive number if the region pointed to by s1 is greater than s2 in this locale.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <locale.h>
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
// If your source character set doesn't support "é" in a string
// you can replace it with `\u00e9`, the Unicode code point
// for "é".
wprintf(L"%d\n", wcscmp(L"é", L"f")); // Reports é > f, yuck.
wprintf(L"%d\n", wcscoll(L"é", L"f")); // Reports é < f, yay!
}wcscmp(), wcsxfrm(), strcoll()
wcsxfrm()Transform a wide string for comparing based on locale
#include <wchar.h>
size_t wcsxfrm(wchar_t * restrict s1,
const wchar_t * restrict s2, size_t n);This is the wide variant of strxfrm(). See that reference page for details.
Returns the length of the transformed wide string in wide characters.
If the return value is greater than n, all bets are off for the result in s1.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <locale.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
// Transform a string for comparison, returning a malloc'd
// result
wchar_t *get_xfrm_str(wchar_t *s)
{
int len = wcsxfrm(NULL, s, 0) + 1;
wchar_t *d = malloc(len * sizeof(wchar_t));
wcsxfrm(d, s, len);
return d;
}
// Does half the work of a regular wcscoll() because the second
// string arrives already transformed.
int half_wcscoll(wchar_t *s1, wchar_t *s2_transformed)
{
wchar_t *s1_transformed = get_xfrm_str(s1);
int result = wcscmp(s1_transformed, s2_transformed);
free(s1_transformed);
return result;
}
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
// Pre-transform the string to compare against
wchar_t *s = get_xfrm_str(L"éfg");
// Repeatedly compare against "éfg"
wprintf(L"%d\n", half_wcscoll(L"fgh", s)); // "fgh" > "éfg"
wprintf(L"%d\n", half_wcscoll(L"àbc", s)); // "àbc" < "éfg"
wprintf(L"%d\n", half_wcscoll(L"ĥij", s)); // "ĥij" > "éfg"
free(s);
}Output:
1
-1
1wcscmp(), wcscoll(), strxfrm()
wcschr() wcsrchr()
Find a wide character in a wide string
#include <wchar.h>
wchar_t *wcschr(const wchar_t *s, wchar_t c);
wchar_t *wcsrchr(const wchar_t *s, wchar_t c);
wchar_t *wmemchr(const wchar_t *s, wchar_t c, size_t n);These are the wide equivalents to strchr(), strrchr(), and memchr().
They search for wide characters in a wide string from the front (wcschr()), the end (wcsrchr()) or for an arbitrary number of wide characters (wmemchr()).
All three functions return a pointer to the wide character found, or NULL if the character, sadly, isn’t found.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
// "Hello, world!"
// ^ ^ ^
// A B C
wchar_t *str = L"Hello, world!";
wchar_t *p;
p = wcschr(str, ','); // p now points at position A
p = wcsrchr(str, 'o'); // p now points at position B
p = wmemchr(str, '!', 13); // p now points at position C
// repeatedly find all occurrences of the letter 'B'
str = L"A BIG BROWN BAT BIT BEEJ";
for(p = wcschr(str, 'B'); p != NULL; p = wcschr(p + 1, 'B')) {
wprintf(L"Found a 'B' here: %ls\n", p);
}
}Output:
Found a 'B' here: BIG BROWN BAT BIT BEEJ
Found a 'B' here: BROWN BAT BIT BEEJ
Found a 'B' here: BAT BIT BEEJ
Found a 'B' here: BIT BEEJ
Found a 'B' here: BEEJwcsspn() wcscspn()
Return the length of a wide string consisting entirely of a set of wide characters, or of not a set of wide characters
#include <wchar.h>
size_t wcsspn(const wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2);
size_t wcscspn(const wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2);The are the wide character counterparts to [strspn()] (#man-strspn)and strcspn().
They compute the length of the string pointed to by s1 consisting entirely of the characters found in s2. Or, in the case of wcscspn(), the characters not found in s2.
The length of the string pointed to by s1 consisting solely of the characters in s2 (in the case of wcsspn()) or of the characters not in s2 (in th ecase of wcscspn()).
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t str1[] = L"a banana";
wchar_t str2[] = L"the bolivian navy on maneuvers in the south pacific";
int n;
// how many letters in str1 until we reach something that's not a vowel?
n = wcsspn(str1, L"aeiou");
wprintf(L"%d\n", n); // n == 1, just "a"
// how many letters in str1 until we reach something that's not a, b,
// or space?
n = wcsspn(str1, L"ab ");
wprintf(L"%d\n", n); // n == 4, "a ba"
// how many letters in str2 before we get a "y"?
n = wcscspn(str2, L"y");
wprintf(L"%d\n", n); // n = 16, "the bolivian nav"
}wcspbrk()Search a wide string for one of a set of wide characters
#include <wchar.h>
wchar_t *wcspbrk(const wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2);This is the wide character variant of strpbrk().
It finds the first occurrance of any of a set of wide characters in a wide string.
Returns a pointer to the first character in the string s1 that exists in the string s2.
Or NULL if none of the characters in s2 can be found in s1.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
// p points here after wcspbrk
// v
wchar_t *s1 = L"Hello, world!";
wchar_t *s2 = L"dow!"; // Match any of these chars
wchar_t *p = wcspbrk(s1, s2); // p points to the o
wprintf(L"%ls\n", p); // "o, world!"
}wcschr(), wmemchr(), strpbrk()
wcsstr()Find a wide string in another wide string
#include <wchar.h>
wchar_t *wcsstr(const wchar_t *s1, const wchar_t *s2);This is the wide variant of strstr().
It locates a substring in a string.
Returns a pointer to the location in s1 that contains s2.
Or NULL if s2 cannot be found in s1.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t *str = L"The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dogs.";
wchar_t *p;
p = wcsstr(str, L"lazy");
wprintf(L"%ls\n", p == NULL? L"null": p); // "lazy dogs."
// p is NULL after this, since the string "wombat" isn't in str:
p = wcsstr(str, L"wombat");
wprintf(L"%ls\n", p == NULL? L"null": p); // "null"
}wcschr(), wcsrchr(), wcsspn(), wcscspn(), strstr()
wcstok()Tokenize a wide string
#include <wchar.h>
wchar_t *wcstok(wchar_t * restrict s1, const wchar_t * restrict s2,
wchar_t ** restrict ptr); This is the wide version of strtok().
And, like that one, it modifies the string s1. So make a copy of it first if you want to preserve the original.
One key difference is that wcstok() can be threadsafe because you pass in the pointer ptr to the current state of the transformation. This gets initializers for you when s1 is initially passed in as non-NULL. (Subsequent calls with a NULL s1 cause the state to update.)
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
// break up the string into a series of space or
// punctuation-separated words
wchar_t str[] = L"Where is my bacon, dude?";
wchar_t *token;
wchar_t *state;
// Note that the following if-do-while construct is very very
// very very very common to see when using strtok().
// grab the first token (making sure there is a first token!)
if ((token = wcstok(str, L".,?! ", &state)) != NULL) {
do {
wprintf(L"Word: \"%ls\"\n", token);
// now, the while continuation condition grabs the
// next token (by passing NULL as the first param)
// and continues if the token's not NULL:
} while ((token = wcstok(NULL, L".,?! ", &state)) != NULL);
}
}Output:
Word: "Where"
Word: "is"
Word: "my"
Word: "bacon"
Word: "dude"wcslen()Returns the length of a wide string
#include <wchar.h>
size_t wcslen(const wchar_t *s);This is the wide counterpart to strlen().
Returns the number of wide characters before the wide NUL terminator.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t *s = L"Hello, world!"; // 13 characters
// prints "The string is 13 characters long.":
wprintf(L"The string is %zu characters long.\n", wcslen(s));
}wcsftime()Formatted date and time output
#include <time.h>
#include <wchar.h>
size_t wcsftime(wchar_t * restrict s, size_t maxsize,
const wchar_t * restrict format,
const struct tm * restrict timeptr);This is the wide equivalent to strftime(). See that reference page for details.
maxsize here refers to the maximum number of wide characters that can be in the result string.
If successful, returns the number of wide characters written.
If not successful because the result couldn’t fit in the space alloted, 0 is returned and the contents of the string could be anything.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <time.h>
#define BUFSIZE 128
int main(void)
{
wchar_t s[BUFSIZE];
time_t now = time(NULL);
// %c: print date as per current locale
wcsftime(s, BUFSIZE, L"%c", localtime(&now));
wprintf(L"%ls\n", s); // Sun Feb 28 22:29:00 2021
// %A: full weekday name
// %B: full month name
// %d: day of the month
wcsftime(s, BUFSIZE, L"%A, %B %d", localtime(&now));
wprintf(L"%ls\n", s); // Sunday, February 28
// %I: hour (12 hour clock)
// %M: minute
// %S: second
// %p: AM or PM
wcsftime(s, BUFSIZE, L"It's %I:%M:%S %p", localtime(&now));
wprintf(L"%ls\n", s); // It's 10:29:00 PM
// %F: ISO 8601 yyyy-mm-dd
// %T: ISO 8601 hh:mm:ss
// %z: ISO 8601 time zone offset
wcsftime(s, BUFSIZE, L"ISO 8601: %FT%T%z", localtime(&now));
wprintf(L"%ls\n", s); // ISO 8601: 2021-02-28T22:29:00-0800
}btowc() wctob()
Convert a single byte character to a wide character
#include <wchar.h>
wint_t btowc(int c);
int wctob(wint_t c);These functions convert between single byte characters and wide characters, and vice-versa.
Even though ints are involved, don’t let this mislead you; they’re effectively converted to unsigned chars internally.
The characters in the basic character set are guaranteed to be a single byte.
btowc() returns the single-byte character as a wide character. Returns WEOF if EOF is passed in, or if the byte doesn’t correspond to a valid wide character.
wctob() returns the wide character as a single-byte character. Returns EOF if WEOF is passed in, or if the wide character doesn’t correspond to a value single-byte character.
See mbtowc() and wctomb() for multibyte to wide character conversion.
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
wint_t wc = btowc('B'); // Convert single byte to wide char
wprintf(L"Wide character: %lc\n", wc);
unsigned char c = wctob(wc); // Convert back to single byte
wprintf(L"Single-byte character: %c\n", c);
}Output:
Wide character: B
Single-byte character: Bmbsinit()Test if an mbstate_t is in the initial conversion state
#include <wchar.h>
int mbsinit(const mbstate_t *ps);For a given conversion state in a mbstate_t variable, this function determines if it’s in the initial conversion state.
Returns non-zero if the value pointed to by ps is in the initial conversion state, or if ps is NULL.
Returns 0 if the value pointed to by ps is not in the initial conversion state.
For me, this example doesn’t do anything exciting, saying that the mbstate_t variable is always in the initial state. Yay.
But if have a stateful encoding like 2022-JP, try messing around with this to see if you can get into an intermediate state.
This program has a bit of code at the top that reports if your locale’s encoding requires any state.
#include <locale.h> // For setlocale()
#include <string.h> // For memset()
#include <stdlib.h> // For mbtowc()
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
mbstate_t state;
wchar_t wc[128];
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
int is_state_dependent = mbtowc(NULL, NULL, 0);
wprintf(L"Is encoding state dependent? %d\n", is_state_dependent);
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state); // Set to initial state
wprintf(L"In initial conversion state? %d\n", mbsinit(&state));
mbrtowc(wc, "B", 5, &state);
wprintf(L"In initial conversion state? %d\n", mbsinit(&state));
}mbtowc(), wctomb(), mbrtowc(), wcrtomb()
mbrlen()Compute the number of bytes in a multibyte character, restartably
#include <wchar.h>
size_t mbrlen(const char * restrict s, size_t n, mbstate_t * restrict ps);This is the restartable version of mblen().
It inspects at most n bytes of the string s to see how many bytes in this character.
The conversion state is stored in ps.
This function doesn’t have the functionality of mblen() that allowed you to query if this character encoding was stateful and to reset the internal state.
Returns the number of bytes required for this multibyte character.
Returns (size_t)(-1) if the data in s is not a valid multibyte character.
Returns (size_t)(-2) if the data is s is a valid but not complete multibyte character.
If your character set doesn’t support the Euro symbol “€”, substitute the Unicode escape sequence \u20ac, below.
#include <locale.h> // For setlocale()
#include <string.h> // For memset()
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
mbstate_t state;
int len;
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state); // Set to initial state
len = mbrlen("B", 5, &state);
wprintf(L"Length of 'B' is %d byte(s)\n", len);
len = mbrlen("€", 5, &state);
wprintf(L"Length of '€' is %d byte(s)\n", len);
}Output:
Length of 'B' is 1 byte(s)
Length of '€' is 3 byte(s)mbrtowc()Convert multibyte to wide characters restartably
#include <wchar.h>
size_t mbrtowc(wchar_t * restrict pwc, const char * restrict s,
size_t n, mbstate_t * restrict ps);This is the restartable counterpart to mbtowc().
It converts individual characters from multibyte to wide, tracking the conversion state in the variable pointed to by ps.
At most n bytes are inspected for conversion to a wide character.
These two variants are identical and cause the state pointed to by ps to be set to the initial conversion state:
mbrtowc(NULL, NULL, 0, &state);
mbrtowc(NULL, "", 1, &state);Also, if you’re just interested in the length in bytes of the multibyte character, you can pass NULL for pwc and nothing will be stored for the wide character:
int len = mbrtowc(NULL, "€", 5, &state);This function doesn’t have the functionality of mbtowc() that allowed you to query if this character encoding was stateful and to reset the internal state.
On success, returns a positive number corresponding to the number of bytes in the multibyte character.
Returns 0 if the character encoded is a wide NUL character.
Returns (size_t)(-1) if the data in s is not a valid multibyte character.
Returns (size_t)(-2) if the data is s is a valid but not complete multibyte character.
If your character set doesn’t support the Euro symbol “€”, substitute the Unicode escape sequence \u20ac, below.
#include <string.h> // For memset()
#include <stdlib.h> // For mbtowc()
#include <locale.h> // For setlocale()
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
mbstate_t state;
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
wprintf(L"State dependency: %d\n", mbtowc(NULL, NULL, 0));
wchar_t wc;
int bytes;
bytes = mbrtowc(&wc, "€", 5, &state);
wprintf(L"L'%lc' takes %d bytes as multibyte char '€'\n", wc, bytes);
}Output on my system:
State dependency: 0
L'€' takes 3 bytes as multibyte char '€'wcrtomb()Convert wide to multibyte characters restartably
#include <wchar.h>
size_t wcrtomb(char * restrict s, wchar_t wc, mbstate_t * restrict ps);This is the restartable counterpart to wctomb().
It converts individual characters from wide to multibyte, tracking the conversion state in the variable pointed to by ps.
The destination array s should be at least MB_CUR_MAX78 bytes in size—you won’t get anything bigger back from this function.
Note that the values in this result array won’t be NUL-terminated.
If you pass a wide NUL character in, the result will contain any bytes needed to restore the conversion state to its initial state followed by a NUL character, and the state pointed to by ps will be reset to its initial state:
// Reset state
wcrtomb(mb, L'\0', &state)If you don’t care about the results (i.e. you’re just interested in resetting the state or getting the return value), you can do this by passing NULL for s:
wcrtomb(NULL, L'\0', &state); // Reset state
int byte_count = wctomb(NULL, "X", &state); // Count bytes in 'X'This function doesn’t have the functionality of wctomb() that allowed you to query if this character encoding was stateful and to reset the internal state.
On success, returns the number of bytes needed to encode this wide character in the current locale.
If the input is an invalid wide character, errno will be set to EILSEQ and the function returns (size_t)(-1). If this happens, all bets are off for the conversion state, so you might as well reset it.
If your character set doesn’t support the Euro symbol “€”, substitute the Unicode escape sequence \u20ac, below.
#include <string.h> // For memset()
#include <stdlib.h> // For mbtowc()
#include <locale.h> // For setlocale()
#include <wchar.h>
int main(void)
{
mbstate_t state;
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
wprintf(L"State dependency: %d\n", mbtowc(NULL, NULL, 0));
char mb[10] = {0};
int bytes = wcrtomb(mb, L'€', &state);
wprintf(L"L'€' takes %d bytes as multibyte char '%s'\n", bytes, mb);
}mbsrtowcs()Convert a multibyte string to a wide character string restartably
#include <wchar.h>
size_t mbsrtowcs(wchar_t * restrict dst, const char ** restrict src,
size_t len, mbstate_t * restrict ps);This is the restartable version of mbstowcs().
It converts a multibyte string to a wide character string.
The result is put in the buffer pointed to by dst, and the pointer src is updated to indicate how much of the string was consumed (unless dst is NULL).
At most len wide characters will be stored.
This also takes a pointer to its own mbstate_t variable in ps for holding the conversion state.
You can set dst to NULL if you only care about the return value. This could be useful for getting the number of characters in a multibyte string.
In the normal case, the src string will be consumed up to the NUL character, and the results will be stored in the dst buffer, including the wide NUL character. In this case, the pointer pointed to by src will be set to NULL. And the conversion state will be set to the initial conversion state.
If things go wrong because the source string isn’t a valid sequence of characters, conversion will stop and the pointer pointed to by src will be set to the address just after the last successfully-translated multibyte character.
If successful, returns the number of characters converted, not including any NUL terminator.
If the multibyte sequence is invalid, the function returns (size_t)(-1) and errno is set to EILSEQ.
Here we’ll convert the string “€5 ± π” into a wide character string:
#include <locale.h> // For setlocale()
#include <string.h> // For memset()
#include <wchar.h>
#define WIDE_STR_SIZE 10
int main(void)
{
const char *mbs = "€5 ± π"; // That's the exact price range
wchar_t wcs[WIDE_STR_SIZE];
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
mbstate_t state;
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
size_t count = mbsrtowcs(wcs, &mbs, WIDE_STR_SIZE, &state);
wprintf(L"Wide string L\"%ls\" is %d characters\n", wcs, count);
}Output:
Wide string L"€5 ± π" is 6 charactersHere’s another example of using mbsrtowcs() to get the length in characters of a multibyte string even if the string is full of multibyte characters. This is in contrast to strlen(), which returns the total number of bytes in the string.
#include <stdio.h> // For printf()
#include <locale.h> // For setlocale()
#include <string.h> // For memset()
#include <stdint.h> // For SIZE_MAX
#include <wchar.h>
size_t mbstrlen(const char *mbs)
{
mbstate_t state;
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
return mbsrtowcs(NULL, &mbs, SIZE_MAX, &state);
}
int main(void)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
char *mbs = "€5 ± π"; // That's the exact price range
printf("\"%s\" is %zu characters...\n", mbs, mbstrlen(mbs));
printf("but it's %zu bytes!\n", strlen(mbs));
}Output on my system:
"€5 ± π" is 6 characters...
but it's 10 bytes!mbrtowc(), mbstowcs(), wcsrtombs(), strlen(), errno
wcsrtombs()Convert a wide character string to a multibyte string restartably
#include <wchar.h>
size_t wcsrtombs(char * restrict dst, const wchar_t ** restrict src,
size_t len, mbstate_t * restrict ps);If you have a wide character string, you can convert it to a multibyte character string in the current locale using this function.
At most len bytes of data will be stored in the buffer pointed to by dst. Conversion will stop just after the NUL terminator is copied, or len bytes get copied, or some other error occurs.
If dst is a NULL pointer, no result is stored. You might do this if you’re just interested in the return value (nominally the number of bytes this would use in a multibyte string, not including the NUL terminator).
If dst is not a NULL pointer, the pointer pointed to by src will get modified to indicate how much of the data was copied. If it contains NULL at the end, it means everything went well. In this case, the state ps will be set to the initial conversion state.
If len was reached or an error occurred, it’ll point one address past dst+len.
If everything goes well, returns the number of bytes needed for the multibyte string, not counting the NUL terminator.
If any character in the string doesn’t correspond to a valid multibyte character in the currently locale, it returns (size_t)(-1) and EILSEQ is stored in errno.
Here we’ll convert the wide string “€5 ± π” into a multibyte character string:
#include <locale.h> // For setlocale()
#include <string.h> // For memset()
#include <wchar.h>
#define MB_STR_SIZE 20
int main(void)
{
const wchar_t *wcs = L"€5 ± π"; // That's the exact price range
char mbs[MB_STR_SIZE];
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
mbstate_t state;
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
size_t count = wcsrtombs(mbs, &wcs, MB_STR_SIZE, &state);
wprintf(L"Multibyte string \"%s\" is %d bytes\n", mbs, count);
}Here’s another example helper function that malloc()s just enough memory to hold the converted string, then returns the result. (Which must later be freed, of course, to prevent leaking memory.)
#include <stdlib.h> // For malloc()
#include <locale.h> // For setlocale()
#include <string.h> // For memset()
#include <stdint.h> // For SIZE_MAX
#include <wchar.h>
char *get_mb_string(const wchar_t *wcs)
{
setlocale(LC_ALL, "");
mbstate_t state;
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
// Need a copy of this because wcsrtombs changes it
const wchar_t *p = wcs;
// Compute the number of bytes needed to hold the result
size_t bytes_needed = wcsrtombs(NULL, &p, SIZE_MAX, &state);
// If we didn't get a good full conversion, forget it
if (bytes_needed == (size_t)(-1))
return NULL;
// Allocate space for result
char *mbs = malloc(bytes_needed + 1); // +1 for NUL terminator
// Set conversion state to initial state
memset(&state, 0, sizeof state);
// Convert and store result
wcsrtombs(mbs, &wcs, bytes_needed + 1, &state);
// Make sure things went well
if (wcs != NULL) {
free(mbs);
return NULL;
}
// Success!
return mbs;
}
int main(void)
{
char *mbs = get_mb_string(L"€5 ± π");
wprintf(L"Multibyte result: \"%s\"\n", mbs);
free(mbs);
}wcrtomb(), wcstombs(), mbsrtowcs(), errno
<wctype.h> Wide Character Classification and Transformation| Function | Description |
|---|---|
iswalnum() |
Test if a wide character is alphanumeric. |
iswalpha() |
Tests if a wide character is alphabetic |
iswblank() |
Tests if this is a wide blank character |
iswcntrl() |
Tests if this is a wide control character. |
iswctype() |
Determine wide character classification |
iswdigit() |
Test if this wide character is a digit |
iswgraph() |
Test to see if a wide character is a printable non-space |
iswlower() |
Tests if a wide character is lowercase |
iswprint() |
Tests if a wide character is printable |
iswpunct() |
Test if a wide character is punctuation |
iswspace() |
Test if a wide character is whitespace |
iswupper() |
Tests if a wide character is uppercase |
iswxdigit() |
Tests if a wide character is a hexadecimal digit |
towctrans() |
Convert wide characters to upper or lowercase |
towlower() |
Convert an uppercase wide character to lowercase |
towupper() |
Convert a lowercase wide character to uppercase |
wctrans() |
Helper function for towctrans() |
wctype() |
Helper function for iswctype() |
This is like <ctype.h> except for wide characters.
With it you can test for character classifications (like “is this character whitespace?”) or do basic character conversions (like “force this character to lowercase”).
iswalnum()Test if a wide character is alphanumeric.
#include <wctype.h>
int iswalnum(wint_t wc);Basically tests if a character is alphabetic (A-Z or a-z) or a digit (0-9). But some other characters might also qualify based on the locale.
This is equivalent to testing if iswalpha() or iswdigit() is true.
Returns true if the character is alphanumeric.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswalnum(L'a')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswalnum(L'B')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswalnum(L'5')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswalnum(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}iswalpha(), iswdigit(), isalnum()
iswalpha()Tests if a wide character is alphabetic
#include <wctype.h>
int iswalpha(wint_t wc);Basically tests if a character is alphabetic (A-Z or a-z). But some other characters might also qualify based on the locale. (If other characters qualify, they won’t be control characters, digits, punctuation, or spaces.)
This is the same as testing for iswupper() or iswlower().
Returns true if the character is alphabetic.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswalpha(L'a')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswalpha(L'B')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswalpha(L'5')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswalpha(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}iswblank()Tests if this is a wide blank character
#include <wctype.h>
int iswblank(wint_t wc);Blank characters are whitespace that are also used as word separators on the same line. In the “C” locale, the only blank characters are space and tab.
Other locales might define other blank characters.
Returns true if this is a blank character.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswblank(L' ')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswblank(L'\t')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswblank(L'\n')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswblank(L'a')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswblank(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}iswcntrl()Tests if this is a wide control character.
#include <wctype.h>
int iswcntrl(wint_t wc);The spec is pretty barren, here. But I’m just going to assume that it works like the non-wide version. So let’s look at that.
A control character is a locale-specific non-printing character.
For the “C” locale, this means control characters are in the range 0x00 to 0x1F (the character right before SPACE) and 0x7F (the DEL character).
Basically if it’s not an ASCII (or Unicode less than 128) printable character, it’s a control character in the “C” locale.
Probably.
Returns true if this is a control character.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswcntrl(L'\t')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes (tab)
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswcntrl(L'\n')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes (newline)
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswcntrl(L'\r')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes (return)
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswcntrl(L'\a')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes (bell)
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswcntrl(L' ')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswcntrl(L'a')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswcntrl(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}iswdigit()Test if this wide character is a digit
#include <wctype.h>
int iswdigit(wint_t wc);Tests if the wide character is a digit (0-9).
Returns true if the character is a digit.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswdigit(L'0')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswdigit(L'5')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswdigit(L'a')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswdigit(L'B')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswdigit(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}iswgraph()Test to see if a wide character is a printable non-space
#include <wctype.h>
int iswgraph(wint_t wc);Returns true if this is a printable (non-control) character and also not a whitespace character.
Basically if iswprint() is true and iswspace() is false.
Returns true if this is a printable non-space character.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswgraph(L'0')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswgraph(L'a')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswgraph(L'B')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswgraph(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswgraph(L' ')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswgraph(L'\n')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}iswprint(), iswspace(), isgraph()
iswlower()Tests if a wide character is lowercase
#include <wctype.h>
int iswlower(wint_t wc);Tests if a character is lowercase, in the range a-z.
In other locales, there could be other lowercase characters. In all cases, to be lowercase, the following must be true:
!iswcntrl(c) && !iswdigit(c) && !iswpunct(c) && !iswspace(c)Returns true if the wide character is lowercase.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswlower(L'c')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswlower(L'0')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswlower(L'B')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswlower(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswlower(L' ')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}islower(), iswupper(), iswalpha(), towupper(), towlower()
iswprint()Tests if a wide character is printable
#include <wctype.h>
int iswprint(wint_t wc);Tests if a wide character is printable, including space (' '). So like isgraph(), except space isn’t left out in the cold.
Returns true if the wide character is printable, including space (' ').
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswprint(L'c')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswprint(L'0')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswprint(L' ')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswprint(L'\r')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}isprint(), iswgraph(), iswcntrl()
iswpunct()Test if a wide character is punctuation
#include <wctype.h>
int iswpunct(wint_t wc);Tests if a wide character is punctuation.
This means for any given locale:
!isspace(c) && !isalnum(c)True if the wide character is punctuation.
Results may vary based on locale.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswpunct(L',')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswpunct(L'!')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswpunct(L'c')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswpunct(L'0')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswpunct(L' ')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswpunct(L'\n')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}ispunct(), iswspace(), iswalnum()
iswspace()Test if a wide character is whitespace
#include <wctype.h>
int iswspace(wint_t wc);Tests if c is a whitespace character. These are probably:
' ')'\f')'\n')'\r')'\t')'\v')Other locales might specify other whitespace characters. iswalnum(), iswgraph(), and iswpunct() are all false for all whitespace characters.
True if the character is whitespace.
Results may vary based on locale.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswspace(L' ')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswspace(L'\n')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswspace(L'\t')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswspace(L',')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswspace(L'!')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswspace(L'c')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}iswupper()Tests if a wide character is uppercase
#include <wctype.h>
int iswupper(wint_t wc);Tests if a character is uppercase in the current locale.
To be uppercase, the following must be true:
!iscntrl(c) && !isdigit(c) && !ispunct(c) && !isspace(c)Returns true if the wide character is uppercase.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswupper(L'B')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswupper(L'c')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswupper(L'0')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswupper(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswupper(L' ')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}isupper(), iswlower(), iswalpha(), towupper(), towlower()
iswxdigit()Tests if a wide character is a hexadecimal digit
#include <wctype.h>
int iswxdigit(wint_t wc);Returns true if the wide character is a hexadecimal digit. Namely if it’s 0-9, a-f, or A-F.
True if the character is a hexadecimal digit.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// testing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswxdigit(L'B')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswxdigit(L'c')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswxdigit(L'2')? L"yes": L"no"); // yes
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswxdigit(L'G')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
wprintf(L"%ls\n", iswxdigit(L'?')? L"yes": L"no"); // no
}iswctype()Determine wide character classification
#include <wctype.h>
int iswctype(wint_t wc, wctype_t desc);This is the Swiss Army knife of classification functions; it’s all the other ones rolled into one.
You call it with something like this:
if (iswctype(c, wctype("digit"))) // or "alpha" or "space" or...and it behaves just like you’d called:
if (iswdigit(c))The difference is that you can specify the type of matching you want to do as a string at runtime, which might be convenient.
iswctype() relies on the return value from the wctype() call to get its work done.
Stolen from the spec, here are the iswctype() calls and their equivalents:
iswctype() call |
Hard-coded equivalent |
|---|---|
iswctype(c, wctype("alnum")) |
iswalnum(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("alpha")) |
iswalpha(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("blank")) |
iswblank(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("cntrl")) |
iswcntrl(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("digit")) |
iswdigit(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("graph")) |
iswgraph(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("lower")) |
iswlower(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("print")) |
iswprint(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("punct")) |
iswpunct(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("space")) |
iswspace(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("upper")) |
iswupper(c) |
iswctype(c, wctype("xdigit")) |
iswxdigit(c) |
See the wctype() documentation for how that helper function works.
Returns true if the wide character wc matches the character class in desc.
Test for a given character classification at when the classification isn’t known at compile time:
#include <stdio.h> // for fflush(stdout)
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t c; // Holds a single wide character (to test)
char desc[128]; // Holds the character class
// Get the character and classification from the user
wprintf(L"Enter a character and character class: ");
fflush(stdout);
wscanf(L"%lc %s", &c, desc);
// Compute the type from the given class
wctype_t t = wctype(desc);
if (t == 0)
// If the type is 0, it's an unknown class
wprintf(L"Unknown character class: \"%s\"\n", desc);
else {
// Otherwise, let's test the character and see if its that
// classification
if (iswctype(c, t))
wprintf(L"Yes! '%lc' is %s!\n", c, desc);
else
wprintf(L"Nope! '%lc' is not %s.\n", c, desc);
}
}Output:
Enter a character and character class: 5 digit
Yes! '5' is digit!
Enter a character and character class: b digit
Nope! 'b' is not digit.
Enter a character and character class: x alnum
Yes! 'x' is alnum!wctype()Helper function for iswctype()
#include <wctype.h>
wctype_t wctype(const char *property);This function returns an opaque value for the given property that is meant to be passed as the second argument to iswctype().
The returned value is of type wctype_t.
Valid properties in all locales are:
"alnum" "alpha" "blank" "cntrl"
"digit" "graph" "lower" "print"
"punct" "space" "upper" "xdigit"Other properties might be defined as determined by the LC_CTYPE category of the current locale.
See the iswctype() reference page for more usage details.
Returns the wctype_t value associated with the given property.
If an invalid value is passed for property, returns 0.
Test for a given character classification at when the classification isn’t known at compile time:
#include <stdio.h> // for fflush(stdout)
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t c; // Holds a single wide character (to test)
char desc[128]; // Holds the character class
// Get the character and classification from the user
wprintf(L"Enter a character and character class: ");
fflush(stdout);
wscanf(L"%lc %s", &c, desc);
// Compute the type from the given class
wctype_t t = wctype(desc);
if (t == 0)
// If the type is 0, it's an unknown class
wprintf(L"Unknown character class: \"%s\"\n", desc);
else {
// Otherwise, let's test the character and see if its that
// classification
if (iswctype(c, t))
wprintf(L"Yes! '%lc' is %s!\n", c, desc);
else
wprintf(L"Nope! '%lc' is not %s.\n", c, desc);
}
}Output:
Enter a character and character class: 5 digit
Yes! '5' is digit!
Enter a character and character class: b digit
Nope! 'b' is not digit.
Enter a character and character class: x alnum
Yes! 'x' is alnum!towlower()Convert an uppercase wide character to lowercase
#include <wctype.h>
wint_t towlower(wint_t wc);If the character is upper (i.e. iswupper(c) is true), this function returns the corresponding lowercase letter.
Different locales might have different upper and lowercase letters.
If the letter wc is uppercase, a lowercase version of that letter will be returned according to the current locale.
If the letter is not uppercase, wc is returned unchanged.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// changing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%lc\n", towlower(L'B')); // b (made lowercase!)
wprintf(L"%lc\n", towlower(L'e')); // e (unchanged)
wprintf(L"%lc\n", towlower(L'!')); // ! (unchanged)
}tolower(), towupper(), iswlower(), iswupper()
towupper()Convert a lowercase wide character to uppercase
#include <wctype.h>
wint_t towupper(wint_t wc);If the character is lower (i.e. iswlower(c) is true), this function returns the corresponding uppercase letter.
Different locales might have different upper and lowercase letters.
If the letter wc is lowercase, an uppercase version of that letter will be returned according to the current locale.
If the letter is not lowercase, wc is returned unchanged.
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
// changing this char
// v
wprintf(L"%lc\n", towupper(L'B')); // B (unchanged)
wprintf(L"%lc\n", towupper(L'e')); // E (made uppercase!)
wprintf(L"%lc\n", towupper(L'!')); // ! (unchanged)
}toupper(), towlower(), iswlower(), iswupper()
towctrans()Convert wide characters to upper or lowercase
#include <wctype.h>
wint_t towctrans(wint_t wc, wctrans_t desc);This is the Swiss Army knife of character conversion functions; it’s all the other ones rolled into one. And by “all the other ones” I mean towupper() and towlower(), since those are the only ones there are.
You call it with something like this:
if (towctrans(c, wctrans("toupper"))) // or "tolower"and it behaves just like you’d called:
towupper(c);The difference is that you can specify the type of conversion you want to do as a string at runtime, which might be convenient.
towctrans() relies on the return value from the wctrans() call to get its work done.
towctrans() call |
Hard-coded equivalent |
|---|---|
towctrans(c, wctrans("toupper")) |
towupper(c) |
towctrans(c, wctrans("tolower")) |
towlower(c) |
See the wctrans() documentation for how that helper function works.
Returns the character wc as if run through towupper() or towlower(), depending on the value of desc.
If the character already matches the classification, it is returned as-is.
#include <stdio.h> // for fflush(stdout)
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t c; // Holds a single wide character (to test)
char desc[128]; // Holds the conversion type
// Get the character and conversion type from the user
wprintf(L"Enter a character and conversion type: ");
fflush(stdout);
wscanf(L"%lc %s", &c, desc);
// Compute the type from the given conversion type
wctrans_t t = wctrans(desc);
if (t == 0)
// If the type is 0, it's an unknown conversion type
wprintf(L"Unknown conversion: \"%s\"\n", desc);
else {
// Otherwise, let's do the conversion
wint_t result = towctrans(c, t);
wprintf(L"'%lc' -> %s -> '%lc'\n", c, desc, result);
}
}Output on my system:
Enter a character and conversion type: b toupper
'b' -> toupper -> 'B'
Enter a character and conversion type: B toupper
'B' -> toupper -> 'B'
Enter a character and conversion type: B tolower
'B' -> tolower -> 'b'
Enter a character and conversion type: ! toupper
'!' -> toupper -> '!'wctrans(), towupper(), towlower()
wctrans()Helper function for towctrans()
#include <wctype.h>
wctrans_t wctrans(const char *property);This is a helper function for generating the second argument to towctrans().
You can pass in one of two things for the property:
toupper to make towctrans() behave like towupper()tolower to make towctrans() behave like towlower()On success, returns a value that can be used as the desc argument to towctrans().
Otherwise, if the property isn’t recognized, returns 0.
#include <stdio.h> // for fflush(stdout)
#include <wchar.h>
#include <wctype.h>
int main(void)
{
wchar_t c; // Holds a single wide character (to test)
char desc[128]; // Holds the conversion type
// Get the character and conversion type from the user
wprintf(L"Enter a character and conversion type: ");
fflush(stdout);
wscanf(L"%lc %s", &c, desc);
// Compute the type from the given conversion type
wctrans_t t = wctrans(desc);
if (t == 0)
// If the type is 0, it's an unknown conversion type
wprintf(L"Unknown conversion: \"%s\"\n", desc);
else {
// Otherwise, let's do the conversion
wint_t result = towctrans(c, t);
wprintf(L"'%lc' -> %s -> '%lc'\n", c, desc, result);
}
}Output on my system:
Enter a character and conversion type: b toupper
'b' -> toupper -> 'B'
Enter a character and conversion type: B toupper
'B' -> toupper -> 'B'
Enter a character and conversion type: B tolower
'B' -> tolower -> 'b'
Enter a character and conversion type: ! toupper
'!' -> toupper -> '!'https://beej.us/guide/bgc/↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSI_C↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX↩︎
https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/vs/community/↩︎
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/wsl/install-win10↩︎
https://developer.apple.com/xcode/↩︎
https://beej.us/guide/bgclr/↩︎
https://en.cppreference.com/↩︎
https://groups.google.com/g/comp.lang.c↩︎
https://www.reddit.com/r/C_Programming/↩︎
This doesn’t change the type of x in other contexts—it’s just in this one usage in this expression.↩︎
Note that this implication only for main(), and not for any other functions.↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_conjugate↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_sphere↩︎
Really it’s just required to be a modifiable lvalue, so not necessarily a variable. But you can treat it as such.↩︎
https://man.archlinux.org/man/errno.3.en↩︎
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/errno-constants?view=msvc-160↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subnormal_number↩︎
The minimum value of an unsigned char is 0. Same fo an unsigned short and unsigned long. Or any unsigned type, for that matter.↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement↩︎
Remember that char is just a byte-sized integer.↩︎
Though the system defines MATH_ERRNO as 1 and MATH_ERREXCEPT as 2, it’s best to always use their symbolic names. Just in case.↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denormal_number↩︎
This is on my system. Some systems will have different points at which numbers become subnormal, or they might not support subnormal values at all.↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_(mathematical_constant)↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denormal_number↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function↩︎
https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/numeric/math/remquo↩︎
https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/numeric/math/remquo↩︎
A quiet NaN is one that doesn’t raise any exceptions.↩︎
https://man.archlinux.org/man/sigaction.2.en↩︎
As if might be sent from Unix’s kill command.]↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure_alignment↩︎
Maybe it depends on the run-time environment and can’t be known at compile-time.↩︎
https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/atomic/ATOMIC_VAR_INIT↩︎
http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2018/p1138r0.pdf↩︎
This effectively does the same thing, but it’s clearly not atomic.↩︎
The spec says, “This spurious failure enables implementation of compare-and-exchange on a broader class of machines, e.g. load-locked store-conditional machines.” And adds, “When a compare-and-exchange is in a loop, the weak version will yield better performance on some platforms. When a weak compare-and-exchange would require a loop and a strong one would not, the strong one is preferable.”↩︎
Don’t use this unless you know what you’re doing—use the thread mutex functionality instead. It’ll let your blocked thread sleep and stop chewing up CPU.↩︎
Don’t use this unless you know what you’re doing—use the thread mutex functionality instead. It’ll let your blocked thread sleep and stop chewing up CPU.↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure_alignment↩︎
https://man.archlinux.org/man/unlinkat.2.en#DESCRIPTION↩︎
https://man.archlinux.org/man/mkstemp.3.en↩︎
https://nee.lv/2021/02/28/How-I-cut-GTA-Online-loading-times-by-70/↩︎
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/17017331/c99-vscanf-for-dummies/17018046#17018046↩︎
http://man.cat-v.org/unix-1st/3/atof↩︎
http://man.cat-v.org/unix-1st/3/atoi↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix↩︎
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/10984974/why-do-people-say-there-is-modulo-bias-when-using-a-random-number-generator↩︎
https://mumble.net/~campbell/2014/04/28/uniform-random-float↩︎
https://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/doc/html/rng.html↩︎
Minecraft enthusiasts might recall that when generating a new world, they were given the option to enter a random number seed. That single value is used to generate that entire random world. And if your friend starts a world with the same seed you did, they’ll get the same world you did.↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time↩︎
The C spec doesn’t say exactly what time(NULL) will return, but the POSIX spec does! And virtually everyone returns exactly that: the number of seconds since epoch.↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure_alignment↩︎
“Try to imagine all life as you know it stopping instantaneously and every molecule in your body exploding at the speed of light.” —Egon Spengler↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_dump↩︎
quick_exit() differs from exit() in that open files might not be flushed and temporary files might not be removed.↩︎
“In-place” meaning that the original array will hold the results; no new array is allocated.↩︎
It always returns the number of bytes the transformed string took, but in this case because s1 was NULL, it doesn’t actually write a transformed string.↩︎
Which you should because of spurious wakeups.↩︎
Well, as at least as many things as you have free cores. Your OS will schedule them as it can.↩︎
For example, if a destructor caused more variables to be set.↩︎
Unix-like systems have a sleep() syscall that sleeps for an integer number of seconds. But thrd_sleep() is likely more portable and gives subsecond resolution, besides!↩︎
When you say GMT, unless you’re talking specifically about the time zone and not the time, you probably mean “UTC”.↩︎
The spec doesn’t actually say “clock ticks”, but I… am.↩︎
Unless you’re on a POSIX system where time_t is definitely an integer, in which case you can subtract. But you should still use difftime() for maximum portability.↩︎
https://man.archlinux.org/man/timegm.3.en↩︎
https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/reference/mkgmtime-mkgmtime32-mkgmtime64?view=msvc-160↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_time↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_week_date↩︎
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_for_Legacy_Computing↩︎
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/17017331/c99-vscanf-for-dummies/17018046#17018046↩︎
This is a variable, not a macro, so if you use it to define an array, it’ll be a variable-length array.↩︎